Treatise on Process Metallurgy. Volume 3: Industrial Processes

Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Editor in Chief
	Co-Editors-in-Chief
Contributors to Volume 3
Acknowledgement
	The Review Committee
Iron and Steel Technology
Ironmaking
	Introduction
		Early History of Ironmaking
		Beginning of Blast Furnace Era
		Development to Present Days
			From Charcoal to Coke
			Ore Preparation
		Blast Furnace Process in Brief
			Blast Furnace Process for Integrated Steelmaking
			Blast Furnace Process Overview
				Charging
				Burden and Gas Movement
				Blast Furnace Zones and Principal Reactions
				Casting and Hot Metal Treatment
	The Ironmaking Blast Furnace
		Construction and Profile
			Throat
			Shaft
			Belly
			Bosh
			Tuyere Zone
			Hearth and Tap Hole
		Charging Equipment
		Lining and Cooling
		Evolution of Blast Furnace Dimension
		Auxiliary Units
	Iron-Bearing Materials and Additives
		Types of Iron Ores
		Agglomerates and Additives
			Sinter
				Sintering Process
				Iron-Bearing Materials
				Additives
				Fuel
				Return Fines
				Moisture
				Sinter Handling
				Sinter Quality
			Pellets
				Pelletizing Process
				Green Pellets
				Induration
				Pellet Quality
			Briquettes
			Slag Formers in Agglomerates
				Limestone
				Burnt Lime
				BOF Slag
				Olivine and Dolomite
				Other Additives
			Additives in Blast Furnace
			DRI and Scrap
	Reducing Agents
		Coke
			Coking
				Raw Materials and Blending
				Coke-Oven Batteries
				Heat-Recovery Cokemaking
				Byproduct Cokemaking
			Coke Characterization
				Composition
				Cold Strength
				Size
				Metallurgical Properties
	References
The Direct Reduction of Iron
	Introduction
	Raw Materials
		Iron Ore Deposits, Mineralogy, and Processing
			Ore Mineralogy and Deposits
			Mining and Beneficiation of Iron Ore
				Liberation Size
				Separation
					Froth Flotation
					Magnetic Separation
			Products of Physical Beneficiation
				Lump Ore
				Fine Ore or Concentrate
				Low-Grade Iron Ores
		Agglomeration of Iron Ore
			Pelletization
				Mixing
				Binders and Additives
				Pelletizing Technologies
				Pellet Induration
				Products
					BF Grade
					DR-Grade
					RHF Pellets
			Sintering
				Raw Materials
				Mixing
				Process
				Product
			Briquetting
			Extrusion
			Nodulization
			Agglomerate Characterization
		Reducing Agents
			Gas-Based DR
				Natural Gas
				Syngases
					Corex Gas
					Coal Gasification Syngas
					Integrated Steelmill Off-Gases
				Shaft Furnace Reducing Gas
			Coal-Based DR
				Particle Size
				Level of Fixed Carbon
				Volatile Matter
				Other Impurities
				Coal Char Reactivity Index
				Ash Fusion Temperature
				Free Swelling Index
				Caking Property of Coal
				Calorific Value
			Other Reducing Agents
				Biomass
				Waste Organics and Char
	DR Processes
		Thermodynamics of DR
			Reduction of Iron Oxide
			Natural Gas Reforming
			Application to Commercial DR Processes
		Kinetics
			Kinetics of Solid-State Reduction by CO or Hydrogen
			Kinetics of Fluidized Bed Iron Oxide Reduction
			Kinetics of Coal-based Reduction in a Rotary Kiln
	Glossary
	References
	Further reading
Hot Metal Pretreatment
	Introduction
	Desulfurization
		Chemistry
		Kinetics
		Process
	Dephosphorization
		Chemistry
		Kinetics
		Processes
		Slag Recycling by Hot Metal Dephosphorization
	Desiliconization
		Chemistry
		Kinetics
		Process
	Influence of Hot Metal Pretreatment on Scrap Melting Capacity
	Hot Metal Heating Device
	References
Converter Steelmaking
	Introduction
	History of Development of Converter Steelmaking
	Basic Oxygen Furnace
		Oxygen Lance and Blowing Practice
		BOF Refractory Lining
	Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
		Process Phenomena in Converter Steelmaking
			Slag Formation
			Emulsion Phenomena
			Postcombustion
		Evaluation of Different Converter Processes
		Principles of Process Control
	Converter Processes for Stainless Steelmaking
		AOD Process
		Vacuum Processes
	On the Physicochemical Basis of Oxygen Steelmaking
		On Thermodynamics of Oxygen Converting
		On the Physicochemical Simulation of BOF
	Future Aspects of Oxygen Converter Process
	References
Electric Furnace Steelmaking
	Introduction to Electric Steelmaking
		Short History of Electric Steelmaking Until Today
		Role of Recycling and Electric Steelmaking
		AC and DC Furnaces
	Raw Materials, Availability, Scrap Classes, Scrap Trading
	Furnace Construction
		Furnace Cooling
		Electrodes
	Melting Practice and Metallurgy
		Melting Practice and Foaming Slag
		Refining in EAF
		Carbon Steel Melting Versus Stainless and High-Alloyed Steel Melting
	Energy Balance of EAF Process, Electric Energy, Chemical Heating, Preheating, Postcombustion
	Special Furnace Constructions
		Continuous Charging with Preheating
		Preheating in Shaft
		Hot Charging of DRI
		Hybrid Process for Steelmaking of Scrap and Hot Metal
	Environmental and Safety Issues
		EAF Dust
		EAF Slag
		EAF Refractories
		Noise
		Safety
	Future Aspects
	References
Secondary Steelmaking
	Introduction
	Deoxidation
		Thermodynamics of Deoxidation Reactions
		Kinetics of Deoxidation
		Industrial Progress
	Desulfurization
		Thermodynamics of Desulfurization
		Kinetics of Desulfurization
		Industrial Progress
	Degassing
		Solubility of Hydrogen and Nitrogen in Iron
		Kinetics of Degassing
		Vacuum Methods
	Decarburization
	Dephosphorization
	Heating
		Ladle Furnaces
		Chemical Heating
	Alloying
	Summarizing Discussion
	References
Inclusion Engineering
	Introduction
	Nonmetallic Inclusions in Steel
	Formation, Growth, and Removal of Inclusions
		General Aspects
		Control of the Composition of Nonmetallic Inclusions
			Silicate Inclusions
			Inclusion Control by Calcium Treatment
			Inclusions for Grain Refinement
	Inclusion Engineering in Practical Steelmaking-A Case of Ball-Bearing Steel
	Special Methods for Ultra-Clean Steels
		Electro Slag Remelting
	Future Trends
	References
Continuous Casting of Steel
	Introduction
	Types of Continuous Casting Machines
		Conventional Casters
		Near Net Shape Casting
	Basic Equipment in Continuous Casting
		Tundish
		Mold
		Strand Cooling and Support Below the Mold
			Heat Transfer Models
				Three-Dimensional Heat Transfer Model for Continuous Casting, DYN3D [6]
				Problem Discretization and Solution Using Parallel MGSNR Method
				Determination of the Heat Transfer Coefficients
				Leidenfrost Effect
				Materials Data
				Model Validation
				Calculation Example of DYN3D
	Fundamentals of Solidification in Continuous Casting
		Solidification Structures
		Microsegregation
		Solidification Paths
		Austenite Decomposition
		Effects of Alloying Elements
		Other Important Fundamental Phenomena in Continuous Casting
			Low Ductility Areas of Steels
		Inclusions
	Modeling of Microstructures
		IDS Tool-An Example of Solidification and Microstructure Model for Steels [6,10]
			Solidification Calculation
			Austenite Decomposition Calculation
	Defects
		Internal Cracks
		Surface Cracks
		Segregations
		Porosity
		Shape Defects
	References
How Mold Fluxes Work
	Introduction
		The Continuous Casting Process
		Mold Fluxes
		Functions of Mold Fluxes
		Mold Flux Behavior in the Mold
	Lubrication of Shell by Mold Flux
		Powder Consumption
		Effect of Casting Variables on Powder Consumption
		Effect of Mold Dimensions on Required Powder Consumption
		Powder Consumption Variation During an Oscillation Cycle
	Heat Transfer in the Mold
		Horizontal Heat Flux
			Mechanisms of Heat Transfer in Slag Film
			Thermal Resistance Between Shell and Mold
			Interfacial Thermal Resistance
			Changes in Heat Flux During the Oscillation Cycle
		Vertical Heat Flux
			Steel Flow Rate and Superheat
			Efficiency of Heat Transfer
			Thermal Insulation of Beds
		Variable Heat Transfer
	Using Mold Fluxes to Adjust Process Variables
		Depth of Molten Slag Pool
		Powder Consumption Q
		Melting Rate
		Solid Slag Film and Horizontal Heat Flux
		Vertical Heat Flux
		Length of Shell or Meniscus Tip
	Effect of Casting Variables on Mold Flux Performance
		Mold Dimensions
		Casting Speed
		Oscillation Characteristics
		Mold-Level Control
		Metal Flow
		Fluctuations in Processes
		Application of Electromagnetic Devices
			Electromagnetic Stirring
			Level Magnetic Field
			Electromagnetic Casting
			Electromagnetic Braking
		Steel Grade
		Water Flow Rate
		Argon Flow Rate
	Properties of Mold Fluxes
		Liquidus and Break Temperatures
		Viscosity 뜀
		Thermal Conductivities
		Optical Properties of Mold Slags
			Refractive Indices n
			Absorption Coefficients 넀
		Surface and Interfacial Tension
		Density 섀 and Heat Capacity
		Crystallization of Mold Fluxes
	Selection of Mold Fluxes
	Using Mold Fluxes to Minimize Defects and Process Problems
	References
Production of Ferroalloys
	Classification, Manufacture, and Use of Ferroalloys
		Ferrochromium
		Ferromanganese
		Ferromolybdenum
		Ferronickel
		Ferrosilicon
		Ferrotitanium
		Ferrovanadium
		Ferrotungsten
	Thermodynamics in the Production of Main Ferroalloys
		Introduction
		Ellingham Diagram
		Direct and Indirect Reduction
		Smelting Temperature
		Thermal Energy Requirements
		Alloy Grade and Impurity Levels
		Slag-Metal Equilibria
		Carbide Formation
		Production of LC Ferroalloys
			Silicothermic Reduction of Chrome Ore
			Oxidation Refining by Oxide Fluxes/Oxygen
	Ferrochromium Smelting Technology
		Raw Materials
		Submerged Arc Furnace
		Thermodynamic Considerations
			Carbon Content of Ferrochromium
			Silicon Content of High-Carbon Ferrochromium
			Phosphorous Content of High-Carbon Ferrochromium
		Kinetic and Mechanism Considerations
			Upper Furnace Zone 1 Loose Charge
			Lower Furnace Zones 2-6
		New Trends in Smelting Technology
			The Outokumpu Process
			The Showa-Denko Process
			The CODIR Process for Chromite Fines
	Reduction of Manganese Oxides and Production of Manganese Alloys
		Manganese-Oxygen System
		Reduction of Manganese Oxides with Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Carbon
		Reduction of Mixed Oxides and Minerals Containing Manganese Oxides
		Reduction of Manganese Oxides by Silicon
		Reduction of Manganese Oxide by Aluminum
		Production of Manganese-containing Ferroalloys
			Production of Ferromanganese in Electric Arc Furnaces
			Design and Operation of Electric furnaces
			Raw Materials Required for the Manufacture of High-Carbon Ferromanganese
			Chemistry of the Process
				Discard Slag Practice
				High-Slag Practice
			Production of Silicomanganese
				Raw Materials
				Chemistry of the Process
				Operation of the Furnace
			Production of Medium-Carbon Ferromanganese
				Production of Medium-Carbon Ferromanganese by Oxygen refining of High-Carbon Ferromanganese
				Silicothermic Production of Medium-Carbon Ferromanganese
			Production of LC Ferromanganese
			Gas Cleaning
			Developments and Future Trends
				Energy Saving Measures
				Use of Plasma Furnaces
		Production of Silicon Alloys
			Raw Materials
			Fundamental Aspects
	Acknowledgments
	References
Non-Ferrous Process Principles and Production Technologies
Copper Production
	Principles of Copper Production
		Ellingham Diagram for Sulfides
		High-Temperature Predominance-Area Diagrams
			Constant Temperature
			Variable Temperature Predominance-Area Diagrams
			Combined Cu-S-O and Fe-S-O Systems
		Three Possible Paths from Chalcopyrite to Liquid Metal
			Dead Roasting and Reduction
			Matte Smelting and Converting
			Direct Oxidation to Metal
		Matte Smelting and Converting Steps
		Disposal of SO2 and Acidmaking
		Slags Used in Copper Smelting
			FeO-Fe2O3-SiO2 Slags
			Silica-Free Slags Using CaO Flux
			FeO-CaO-SiO2 Slags
		Minor Element Behavior
			Distribution Between Matte and Slag
			Volatilization During Matte Smelting and Converting
			Distribution Between White Metal and Copper
		Rate Processes
			Intrinsic Oxidation Kinetics of Chalcopyrite Particles
				Decomposition of Chalcopyrite
			Ignition and Combustion of Chalcopyrite Concentrate Particles
				Rates of Oxidation Reactions
					Laminar-Flow Reactor
					Flash-Smelting Reactor
				Copper Loss by Volatilization
				Particle Temperature
			Melting of Particles
				Combustion of Chalcopyrite in a Laminar-Flow Reactor
				Combustion of Chalcopyrite Particles in a Flash Smelter
			Kinetics of Minor Element Volatilization During Copper Matte Converting
				Desulfurization Rate
				Volatilization of Minor Elements
				Partial Pressure of Minor Elements
				Volatilization Rate of Minor Elements
				Comparison of Calculated and Measured Volatilization Rates
				Rate-Controlling Step of the Volatilization Rate
		Combined Reaction and Fluid Flow Modeling and Computer Simulation
	Industrial Technologies for Copper Production
		Matte Smelting Processes
	Converting Processes
	Mitsubishi Continuous Copper Smelting Process
	Slag Cleaning
	Industry Trends
	Refractories in Copper Production
		Introduction
		Refractory Types for Copper Furnaces
			Magnesia-Chrome
			Other Refractories
			Refractory Properties
			Impregnation and Preinfiltration
		Refractory Degradation Mechanisms in Copper Furnaces
			Complexity of Chemical, Thermal, and Mechanical Impact
			Chemical Degradation
				Melt Infiltration [107,109,111,112]
				SO2 Gas Diffusion from the Matte [107,109,112]
				Redox Effect and Reduction by Varying or Low Oxygen Partial Pressure [107,109]
				Hydration [107,109,112]
				Carbon Bursting [107]
				Forsterite Bursting [114]
				Copper Oxide Bursting [112]
	References
Nickel and Cobalt Production
	Synopsis
	Occurrences
	Extraction of Nickel and Cobalt from Laterite Ores
		Laterite Ore Upgrading
		Ferronickel Production from Garnierite Ores
			Dewatering
			Calcination/Reduction
			Ferronickel Smelting
			Nickel Production from Matte Produced from Garnierite Ore
		Extraction Methods for Goethite Ore
			High-Temperature Leaching
			Solution Purification and Strengthening
			Reduction Roast/Leach Process Caron Process
	Extraction of Nickel and Cobalt from Sulfide Ores
		Concentration of Minerals by Comminution and Flotation
		Roasting and Electric Furnace Smelting
		Flash Furnace Smelting
		Converting
	Production of Nickel and Cobalt from Sulfide Intermediates
		Releaching
			Chlorine Leaching
			Air-Ammonia Leaching
			Oxygen-Sulfuric Acid Leaching
		Solution Purification
			Chloride Solvent Extraction
			Sulfate Solvent Extraction
		Electrowinning
			Nickel Electrowinning
			Cobalt Electrowinning
		Hydrogen Reduction
			Hydrogen Reduction of Nickel
			Hydrogen Reduction of Cobalt
		Electrorefining of Matte and Impure Anodes
			Electrorefining Matte Anodes
			Electrorefining of Impure Nickel
		Carbonyl Refining
			Ambient Pressure Carbonyl Refining
			High-Pressure Carbonyl Refining
	Cobalt from Central African Copper-Cobalt Ores
	Recovering Nickel and Cobalt from End-of-Use Scrap
	Summary
	References
Lead and Zinc Production
	Lead Production
		Principles of Lead Production
			Ellingham Diagram
			High-Temperature Predominance-Area Diagrams Phase Stability Diagrams
			Chemical and Phase Equilibrium Relevant to Lead Production
			Paths from Galena to Primary Lead
				Sinter Plant-Blast Furnace
				Direct Smelting Reduction
				Roast Reaction
			Chemical Reactions in Lead Smelting
				Oxidation
				Reduction
				Decomposition
				Roast Reactions
			Slags Used in Lead Production
			Secondary Lead Production
			Refining of Lead
		Industrial Technologies for Lead Production
			Sinter Plant-Blast Furnace
				Sintering Process
				Lead Blast Furnace
			Direct Smelting-Reduction Processes
				The KIVCET Process
				The QSL Process
				Other Direct Smelting-Reduction Technologies
			Roast Reaction Process the Boliden Electric Furnace Process
			Secondary Production Technologies
				Reverberatory Furnace
				Secondary Blast Furnace
				Rotary Kiln
				Short Rotary Furnace
				Electric Arc Furnace
			Industry Trends in Lead Production
	Zinc Production
		Principles of Zinc Production
		Industrial Technologies for Zinc Production
			Retort Process
			Imperial Smelting Process
		Industry Trends in Zinc Production
	References
Process Modeling in Non-Ferrous Metallurgy
	General Approach to Process Modeling
	Thermodynamic Equilibrium Process Modeling
		Modeling of Minor-Element Behavior in Bath Smelting of Sulfide Minerals
			Steady-State Operations
			Unsteady-State Operations
				Slagmaking Stage
				Coppermaking Stage
			Thermodynamic Data
				Example 1. Minor-Element Behavior in Copper Matte Smelting and Converting with the Use of Tonnage Oxygen
					Example 1-1. Matte Smelting Process
						Lead
						Zinc
						Bismuth
						Antimony
						Arsenic
					Example 1-2. Converting
					Example 1-3. Overall Coppermaking Process
					Example 1-4. Comparison of Predicted Results with Commercial Data
					Example 1-5. Summary
				Example 2. Thermodynamic Modeling of Minor-Element Behavior in In-Bath Copper Matte Smelting and Converting with Calcium F ...
					Example 2-1. Minor-Element Behavior
						Lead
						Bismuth
						Antimony
						Arsenic
					Example 2-2. Comparison of Observed and Predicted Data
					Example 2-3. Overall Elimination
					Example 2-4. Slagging of Sb and As
					Example 2-5. Summary
				Example 3. Volatilization and Slagging of Lead in Copper Matte Converting
					Example 3-1. Slag Tapping
					Example 3-2. Predictions Compared with Commercial Data
		Combined Equilibrium and Fluid Flow Modeling
			Reaction Rate and Variation of Gas and Particle Temperature
			Volatilization of Minor Elements
			Chemical Reactions
			Minor-Element Behavior during Flash Smelting of Chalcopyrite
			Minor-Element Behavior during Flash Converting of Copper Matte
	Reaction Engineering Models
		Fluid-Solid Reactions Involving an Initially Nonporous Solid Producing a Porous Product Layer the Shrinking-Cor...
		Fluid-Solid Reactions Involving a Porous Solid
			The Grain Model
		Sohns Law of Additive Reaction Times
			Example A. Porous Solids in Which the Reaction of the Solid Follows the Nucleation-and-Growth Kinetics
			Example B. Fluid-Solid Reactions Under Varying Temperature and Concentration
			Example C. Application to Liquid-Solid Reactions
			Example D. The Grain-Pellet System with Intragrain Diffusion Effect
			Example E. Fluid-Solid Reactions in Porous Pellets with Changing Effective Diffusivity
				Effect of σ2 on the Fractional Conversion
				Effect of δ on the Fractional Conversion
			Example F. The Reaction of a Porous Solid with a Gas Accompanied by a Volume Change in the Gas Phase
		Effect of Chemical Equilibrium on Fluid-Solid Reaction Kinetics and the Falsification of Activation Energy
		Complex Fluid-Solid Reactions
			Solid-Solid Reactions Proceedings through Gaseous Intermediates with a Net Production of Gases
			Solid-Solid Reactions Proceeding Through Gaseous Intermediates with No Net Production Gas
			Successive Gas-Solid Reactions in Which the Reactant Gas Reacts with the First Solid, Producing an Intermediate Gas Which  ...
			Staged Reaction of a Solid with a Gas in Which the Solid Forms a Series of Thermodynamically Stable Intermediate Phases
			Simultaneous Reactions Between Solid Reactants and Fluids
		Modeling of Unit Processes
			Flash Smelting Process
			Fluidized-Bed Reactors for Fluid-Solid Reactions
			Bottom-Gas-Injected Solvent Extraction Process
			Solution Mining Process
	References
Aluminum Production
	Hydrometallurgy of the Bayer process
		Impact of Different Bauxites on the Bayer Process
		Bayer Process
			Crushing, Mixing, and Desilication
			Digestion
			Clarification
			Precipitation
			Calcination
		Alumina Properties
	Electrometallurgy of Aluminum
		Introduction
		Electrolyte Composition and Liquidus Temperature
			Dissociation of Cryolite
			Liquidus Temperature of Cryolite
		Dissolution of Alumina in Cryolitic Bath
			Alumina Dissolution Mechanism
		The Industrial Production of Aluminum
			Faradays Law and Aluminum Production
			Current Efficiency-Aluminum Back Reaction
			Industrial Cell Design
				Magnetohydrodynamics
				ACD and Cell Voltage
				Alumina Feeding
				Changing Anodes
				Metal Tapping
				Cathode Lining
		Electrode Reactions for Aluminum Electrodes
			Anode Reactions
				Electrochemical Production of Carbon Dioxide
				Parallel Reactions at the Anode
					Electrochemical Production of Carbon Monoxide
					Production of Carbon Monoxide by the Boudouard Reaction
					Electrochemical Production of Perfluorocarbons
						Anode Effects
						Cell Gas Composition During Anode Effects
						Anode Effect Termination
						Formation of COF2
						PFC Emission Rates
			Cathode Reactions
				Cathode Parallel Reactions
					Production of Sodium at the Cathode
					Production of Other Metals at the Cathode
					Production of Alkali Metal at the Cathode
		Thermodynamics for Aluminum Electrolysis
			Standard-State Gibbs Free Energy
			Reversible Decomposition Potential, Nernst Voltage
			Change in Enthalpy
		Energy Efficiency of Aluminum Cells
			Cell Voltage Components
			Electrode Polarization
				Polarization Voltage
				Back EMF Nonohmic Voltage
			Cell Pseudoresistance and Cell Voltage Control
			Gas Bubbles
			Aluminum Cell Overvoltages
			Environmental Issues
			The Development of Inert Anodes
			Aluminum Casting
	Aluminum Recycling
		Aluminum Materials Recycled
			Scrap
				Major Classifications by Alloy Family
				Sources and Material Flow
	References
Silicon Production
	Introduction
		Silicon Metal Preparation and Applications
			Purification of Metallurgical Grade Silicon
		Polycrystalline Silicon Definition and Use
			High-Purity Polycrystalline Silicon
				Semiconductor Applications
				PV Applications
	Polysilicon Production Processes
		TCS Synthesis
			Direct Chlorination Process
				Background and History
				Process Chemistry
				FBR Design
			Hydrogenation Process
				Background and History
				Process Chemistry
				FBR Design
		TCS Purification
		Deposition of Polycrystalline Silicon from TCS
			CVD Process, Rod-Form Polysilicon
				CVD Reactor Design
				Process Chemistry
				Polysilicon Products
			CVD Process, Granular Form
		Recycle of Coproduct Gases
			Conversion of STC to TCS
			Thermal Conversion
			Hydrogenation Conversion
		Silane Synthesis
			TCS to Silane
			Silicon Tetrafluoride to Silane
			Metal Salt Processes
			Silane Deposition Processes
				CVD, Thin Films
				CVD, Rod-Form Polysilicon
				CVD, Granular-Form Polysilicon
				CVD, Free-Space Reactor
				Other Deposition Processes
		DCS CVD Process
		STC CVD Process
	Conclusions and Future Trends
	Relevant Websites
	References
Hydrometallurgical Processing
	Introduction to Hydrometallurgical Processing
		Fundamentals of Hydrometallurgy
			Electrochemical Fundamentals
			Kinetics
	Application of Hydrometallurgical Fundamentals
		Extraction
		Concentration/Purification
		Recovery
	Gold Processing
		Gold Extraction
		Concentration/Purification of Gold in Solution
			Activated Carbon
				Carbon-in-Column
				Carbon-in-Pulp
				Carbon-in-Leach
				Carbon Stripping or Elution
				Carbon Regeneration
			Gold Ion Exchange Resin
			Gold Solvent Extractants
		Gold Recovery
			Electrochemical Fundamentals
				Electrowinning
				Gold Cementation
		Gold Refining
		Related Processes
			Cyanide Recovery and Detoxification
			Cyanide Recovery
			Cyanide Destruction
	Copper Processing
		Copper Ore Leaching
			Copper Ore Heap leaching
			Copper Ore Leaching by Ore Type
		Copper SX
		Copper Electrowinning
	Zinc Processing
		Zinc Oxide Leaching
		Zinc Solution Purification
		Zinc Electrowinning
	Glossary
	References
Biohydrometallurgy
	Introduction
	Growth, Metabolism, and Kinetics
		Microbial Oxidation Kinetics
		Environmental Factors
		Microbial Population Analysis
	Mineral Degradation/Metal Extraction
	Summary of Biohydrometallurgy Commercialization History
	Commercially Oriented Processes for Biooxidation
		BIOX
		GEOCOAT
		BioCOP
		BACOX
	Process and Waste Water Treatment Applications
		Induced Precipitation
		Biosorption Treatments
		Bioconversion Treatment Processes
		Mixed Removal Systems
	Glossary
	References
Rare Earth, Titanium Group Metals, and Reactive Metals Production
	Rare Earth Metals
		General Statement
			Raw Materials
			Outline of Rare Earth Metallurgy
				Scandium
				Yttrium and the Lanthanoids
			Physicochemical Properties of Rare Earths
				Melting Points and Boiling Points
				Physical Properties That Serve as a Basis for Metallothermic Reduction
				Physical Properties That Serve as a Basis for Molten Salt Electrolysis
		Reduction and Refining Processes [8,16-23]
			History of Research for Industrial Production
			Categorization of Industrial Production Methods
				Metallothermic Reduction
				Reduction-Distillation Method
				Reduction-Diffusion Process
				Molten Salt Electrolysis
			High-Purity Refining Method
				Vacuum Melting
				Distillation
				Electrotransport [33,34]
				Zone melting [35]
				Electrochemical Deoxidation [36]
	Titanium Group Metals Ti, Zr, and Hf
		Titanium
			History of Process for Titanium Metal Production
			Kroll Process
				Chlorination Process
				Reduction and Separation Process
			Other Commercialized Titanium Production Processes
				Hunter Process
				Iodine Process
			Past Research for New Titanium Production Processes [51,53]
		Zirconium
			Zirconium Metal Reduction Process
			Process for Separating Zirconium and Hafnium [86-88]
		Hafnium
	Reactive Metals
		Reactive Metals-Lithium and Sodium
			General Statement
			Lithium [103]
				Raw Materials
			Smelting Process
				Production of Intermediate Material Lithium Carbonate
				Reduction Process Molten Salt Electrolysis
			Sodium [112]
				History of Industrial Production and Raw Materials
			Reduction Process Molten Salt Electrolysis
				Castner Process
				Downs Process
		Reactive Metals-Magnesium and Calcium
			General Statement
			Magnesium [121-125]
				Raw Materials and History of Industrial Production
			Smelting Process
				Molten Salt Electrolysis
					IG Farben process [129]
					Dow process [130]
					Bipolar Electrolysis [131]
				Metallothermic Reduction
					Pidgeon process [132-139]
					Magnetherm process [121]
			Calcium [140,141]
	References
Platinum Group Metals Production
	Introduction
	Uses of PGMs [8,9]
	Sources of Raw PGMs
	Material Flow of PGMs
	Smelting and Refining of PGMs
	Recycling of PGMs
	Conclusions
	References
Metallurgical Production Technology
Process Concept for Scaling-Up and Plant Studies
	Introduction
	Physical Modeling
		Buckingham π Theorem
		Dimensional Analysis Based on Governing Equations
		Principle of Similarity
	Challenges in Scaling-Up of a Process in Process Metallurgy
		Ambient Temperature Operation
		High-Temperature Operation
	Scaling-Up and Scaling-Down Operations in Process Metallurgy
	Applications
	Case Study One
		Study of Blast Furnace Raceway [11]
		Dimensional Analysis
			Velocity Decreasing Case
	Case Study Two
		Development of Novel Process Solutions for Mo Additions in EAF Practice in Sweden
		Current State of Mo Addition
		Theoretical Aspects of MoO3 Stabilization
			Approaches to the Improvement of Mo Addition
		Methods Experimental Part
			Materials
			Thermogravimetry
			Gas Chromatography
			High-Temperature X-Ray Diffraction
		Steel Alloying Experiments
			Small-Scale Experiments in Laboratory
			500-g-Scale Laboratory Experiments
			Industrial Trials with 3tons Melt
				Initial Materials
				Charging Sequence Sequence of Operations
			Industrial Trials in 70tons EAF
		Results and Discussion
			The Development of New Precursor for Steel Alloying with Mo
				CaMoO4, MgMoO4, and Fe2MoO4 Stabilities with Respect to Evaporation and Oxidation
					Fe2MoO4 Stability by TGA
					CaMoO4 and MgMoO4 Stabilities
				The Possibilities of CaMoO4, MgMoO4, and Fe2MoO4 In Situ Formation from Industrial-Grade Materials
					TGA Studies of Fe2MoO4 Formation
					HT-XRD Studies on CaMoO4 Formation from CaO and MoO3 Mixture
					HT-XRD Studies on Fe2MoO4 Formation from Precursor Mixture
				The Investigation of CaMoO4 and Fe2MoO4 Precursors Reduction Processes
					Nonisothermal TGA Studies
					GC Studies
				Laboratory Trials on Steel Alloying from 16-g- to 500-g-Scale Experiments
					16-g-Scale Laboratory Experiments
					500-g-Scale Laboratory Experiments
				Industrial Trials on Steel Alloying in 3tons Induction Furnace
					MoO3+C+FeOx Mixture M1
					MoO3+C Mixture M2
					MoO3+C+CaO Mixture M3
				Industrial Test in 70tons EAF
					Slag Chemistry
					Steel Chemistry
					The Mo Yield
		Summary and Conclusions
	Conclusions
	References
Project Technology and Management
	INTRODUCTION
	PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
	PROJECT FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
	CHOICE OF TECHNOLOGY
	CHOICE OF LOCATION
	COST OF PROJECT
	APPRAISAL CRITERIA
	SOCIAL COST?BENEFIT ANALYSIS
	PLANNING, SCHEDULING,
AND RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
	CHALLENGES OF A METALLURGICAL PROJECT
		Kudremukh Iron Ore Company
	APPENDIX A. PROJECT INVESTMENT COSTS WITH
A CLASSIFICATION
	APPENDIX C. OPERATING COSTS AND REVENUE
	APPENDIX D. CASH FLOW PROJECTIONS
	APPENDIX E. SOURCES AND APPLICATIONS
	Further reading
Metallurgical Production Plant-Energy and Environment
	Planning for Energy Efficiency
		Motivation
		Outline of the Section
		Energy Efficiency Legislative Framework
			National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency
			Energy Conservation Act
			Bureau of Energy Efficiency
			PAT Mechanism
			Designated Consumers
		Methodology for Computing Energy Intensity
			Production and Capacity Utilization
			Electricity Consumption and Costs
			Solid Fuels
			Liquid Fuels
			Gaseous Fuels
			Wastes Recovered and Used as Fuels
			Other Fuel Types
			Energy Used in Process Heating
			Data Validation
		Baseline SEC Computation in Steel Plants
			Variations in Steel Plant Operating Conditions
				Normalized Baseline SEC for Steel Plants
			Operations Diversity in Integrated Steel Plants
			Operations Diversity in DRI-Based Steel Plants
			Energy Efficiency Measures in Steel Plants
		Baseline SEC Computation in Cement Plants
			Variations in Cement Plant Operating Conditions
				Normalized Baseline SEC
			Operations Diversity in Cement Plants
			Energy Efficiency Measures in Cement Plants
		Barriers and Challenges in Plant Operations and Performance
			Iron and Steel Industry
				Scrap Utilization
				Fly Ash Consumption
				Slag Consumption
				Use of Alternative Fuels in Blast Furnace
				Availability and Quality of Iron Ore
				Availability and Quality of Coal
				Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection in Steel Industry
				Environmental Pollution Norms
				Summary
			Cement Industry
				Fly Ash Consumption
				Slag Consumption
				Industrial Waste Usage
				Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection in Cement Industry
				Interstate Transportation of Hazardous Waste
				Use of Cement Kilns for Hazardous Waste Incineration
				Shortage of Raw Material and Substitutes
				Availability of Coal
				Factors Attributed to High Retail Cost of Indian Cement
				Environmental Pollution Norms
	Acknowledgments
	References
Intellectual Property Rights and the Technology Transfer Process
	Introduction
	Intellectual Property Rights
	International Framework Governing IPR
		WIPO
		WTO-TRIPs
	Patents
		Patentable Subject Matter
			Exclusions from Patentability
			Inventions Patentable
		Criteria for Seeking Patent Protection
			Novelty
				Prior Disclosure of Inventions By the Inventors/Applicants
			Inventive Step Nonobviousness
			Utility/Industrial Applicability
		Procedure for Grant of a Patent
		Patent Application
			Contents/Drafting of the Application
				Unity of Invention
				Best Mode of Practice/Sufficiency of Disclosure
			Amount of Time Required for Patent Grant
			Term of a Patent
		International Filing
			The PCT
		Prior Art Search
			Types of Patent Searches
				Patentability/Novelty Searches
				Invalidity/Validity Searches
				Freedom-to-Operate-Search
				Design-Around Searches
				Patent Mapping/Patent Landscape Studies
			Methods of Patent Search
				Keyword or Concept Based Search
				Patent Class Based Search
				Author/Inventor Name and Assignee Name Based Search
				Citation Analysis
			Patent Databases
				Patenting Trend in the Field of Materials and Metallurgy
	Inventorship, Ownership, Compensation
		Inventorship
			Joint Inventors
			Inventorship Versus Authorship
		Ownership
			Joint Ownership
			Employees and their Inventions
			Compensation
	Technology Transfer and Commercialization of Patents
		IP Management
			Legal Management: The Most Important Aspect is Timely Protection of the Invention as it is the Crux and the Most Essential ...
			Business Management which Includes Commercialization and Marketing Strategies
		Technology Transfer in Universities and Public Funded R&D Centers
			Expectations from University TTOs
			A Brief Note on Valuation and Possible Routes of Income
			Royalties
				The Cost/Expenditure Approach
				The Market Approach
				The Income Approach
		Technology Transfer in Start-Ups
			Roadblocks Faced By Small Firms
			Commercialization Requisites for Start-Ups
	Case Study 1
		Materials and Electrochemical Research Corporation
		Business Strategy, Patents, and Commercialization
	Case Study 2
		Nobel Biocare
Extraction of Rare Earths for Advanced Applications
	INTRODUCTION
	THE RESOURCES
	Extraction of Rare Earths from Minerals
	EXTRACTION OF RARE EARTHS FROM MINERALS
		Rare Earth Metal Extraction Using Molten Salt Electrolysis [6,8]
		Rare Earth Metal Extraction Using Metallothermic Reduction [3,6,9-16]
		Melting of Rare Earth containing Alloys [3,13,19,20]
	APPLICATIONS OF RARE EARTHS
		Magnet Market [23]
		Rare Earth Phosphor Market
		Market for Ni-MH Batteries
		Other Markets for Rare Earth
	THE BASE RARE EARTH MARKET
	CONCLUSIONS
	REFERENCES
	FURTHER READING
Ferrous Metallurgical Process IndustryVisakhapatnam Steel Plant - From Conceptualization to Commissioning
	INTRODUCTION
	OVERVIEW
	BACKGROUND
	PLANT LOCATION AND PROJECT REPORT
	REVISED DETAILED PROJECT REPORT: SALIENT FEATURES
		Plant Capacity and Expansion Potential
		Product Mix
		Raw Materials
			Iron Ore
			Coking Coal
			Steam Coal
			Movement of Coal
			Limestone
			Dolomite
			Manganese Ore
			Other Materials
	PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
		Coke Making
			Preparation of Coal
			Choice of Coke Ovens
			Dry Quenching of Coke
			Cooling and Condensation
		Iron Making
			Sintering
			Blast Furnace Size
		Special Features of the Blast Furnaces
		Steel Making
			Linz-Donawitz Process with Continuous Casting Recommended
			Converter Size and Number
			Selection of Casting Machine and Its Number
		Rolling Mills
		Light and Medium Merchant Mill Features
		Wire Rod Mill features
		Medium Merchant and Structural Mill Features
		Universal Beam Mill features
		Raw Material Handling
		Manpower Requirement
		Start of Construction and Formation of RINL
		The Rationalized Concept
		A Unique Workforce
		Construction and Commissioning of the Plant
	COMMISSIONING SEQUENCE FOR MAJOR UNITS OF VSP
		Beyond Commissioning
		Closing Remark
Environmental Aspects and the Future of Process Metallurgy
Sustainability
	INTRODUCTION
		Natural Resources and the Environment
		Development of the Concept of Sustainability
		Definitions and Interpretations of Sustainable Development
		Models of Sustainability
	THE LONG-TERM SUPPLY OF MINERALS AND METALS
		Determinants of Supply
		Crustal Resources
		Crustal Rocks as a Source of Scarce Elements
		Resources in Seawater
		Resources on the Seabed
		Conclusions
	THE LONG-TERM DEMAND FOR MINERALS AND METALS
		Determination of Supply
		Substitution
		Dematerialization
		Conclusions
	TOWARD ZERO WASTE
		Wastes and the Waste Hierarchy
		Cleaner Production
		Wastes as Raw Materials
		Process Reengineering
		Industrial Ecology
		Barriers and Drivers
	TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
		The Concept of Stewardship
		Stewardship Models
			The ICMM and Five Winds Models
			An Integrated Stewardship Model
		Drivers of Stewardship
		Vision 2050
	REFERENCES
Energy Resources, Its Role and Use in Metallurgical Industries
	INTRODUCTION
		Energy Sources
		Energy Role During Metal Extraction
		Energy Used by Metallurgical Plants
		Forms of Energy Required by Metallurgical Plants
	ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP
	ENERGY USE IN STEEL PLANTS
		Steel Plant Based on BF-BOF-CC Route
			Forms of Energy Used
			Energy Use Distribution
			Energy Consumption in Iron Making
				Coke Making
				Sinter Making
				Blast Furnace Iron Making
			Scope of Minimizing Energy Use
		Steel Plants Based on DRI-EAF-CC Route
			Forms of Energy Used
			Quantity of Energy Use
			Energy Utilized and Wasted in DRI-Based Steel Plants
			Scope of Waste Heat Recovery
			Scope of Minimizing Energy Use
		Steel Plants Based on SR-BOF-CC Route
			Form and Quantity of Energy Need
			Distribution of Energy Use
			Energy Utilized and Wasted in COREX-Based Steel Plants
		Scrap Remelting EAF-CC Steel Plants
			Form of Energy Used
			Quantity of Energy Use
				Type of Feed
				Proportion of Feed
				Additional Energy Source
				Moisture in the Charge
				Slag and Flux Quantity
				Number of Charges
				Tapping Temperature
				Delay Between Two Heats
			Scope of Waste Heat Recovery
			Scope of Minimizing Energy Use
	ENERGY USE IN ALUMINUM PLANTS
		Primary Aluminum Industries
			Forms of Energy Need
			Quantity of Energy Use
			Distribution of Energy Consumption in the Aluminum Plant
			Scope of Minimizing Energy Use
				Improvements in Operating Practices
				Alternative Methods
		Secondary Aluminum Industries Recycling of Scrap
	POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS CAUSED
BY ENERGY USE
		Short Term Solutions on SOS Basis
		Long-Term Solutions on Diagnostic Basis
	ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES FOR METALLURGICAL USE
		Hydrogen
		Biomass
			Merits and Limitations of Biomass as Energy Source
			Scope of Biomass Use for Metallurgical Applications
			Available Technology for Using Biomass
				Blast Furnace
				DRI Technology
				SR Technology
	CONCLUSIONS
	LIST OF RELEVANT WEBSITES
	REFERENCES
Methods to Evaluate Environmental Aspects of Materials
	Life Cycle Assessment and Related Methodologies
		Introduction to LCA
			Introduction
			Explaining LCA Using a Simple Example
			A Formal Definition of LCA
				Impact Categories
			Examples of LCA of Common Materials
			The Future of LCA
				Rebound and Perverse Effects
				Recycling and LCA
				Dynamic LCA
				Beyond LCA
			Conclusions on LCA
	Material Flow Analysis
		The Concept of Material Flow Analysis
		Approaches to MFA
			Static Approach
			Dynamic Approach
		Material Stock
			The Bottom-Up Approach
			Top-Down Approach
		Recent Progresses in MFA Case Studies
			Future Demand Prediction
			Metal Recycling
			Minor Metals
	References
Processes for Recycling
	Metals from Slag
		An Outline of Recovery of Metals from Slag
			Ironmaking and Steelmaking Slags
			Pyrometallurgical Slags
		Recovery of Titanium from Titanium-Rich Slag
			Conventional Kroll Process
			Electrochemical Routes
			Combination of Carbothermic Reduction and Electrochemical Process
		Recovery of Metals from Stainless Steel Refining Slag
		Recovery of Metals from Copper Extraction Slag
			The Current Practice for Recycling Smelting and Converter Slags
			Recovery of Metals from Slags with Pyrometallurgical Process
			Recovery of Metals from Slags with Hydrometallurgical Process
			Recovery of Metals from Slags with Biohydrometallurgical Process
	Retention of Metals and Metals Recovery
		Introduction
		Retention of Metals
			Retention of Iron from Steel Production Process
				The Necessity
				Slag Volume Minimization in BOF Practice
				Optimization of BOF Slag Composition
			Retention of Chromium in AOD Process for Stainless Steel Production
				The Origin and Route for Chromium Retention in AOD Process
				The Analysis of the AOD Process?Thermodynamic Aspect
				The Analysis of the AOD Process?Kinetics and Operation Optimization
		Metals Recovery
			A General View of Zinc Recovery Technologies
			Electrically Aided Caustic Leaching
			Selected Chlorination and Evaporation
			The Selection of Technical Approaches
	Ironmaking and Steelmaking Slags
		Generation of Slags
		Refining of Impurities in Hot Metal and Molten Steel
		Refining by Multiphase Fluxes
		Recycling of Slags
	Ironmaking and Steelmaking Dusts
		Generation of Dusts
		Processes
			Iron-Rich Dust
				Kawasaki Process [147]
				SL/RN Process [147]
				SDR Process [147]
				SPM Process [147,150]
				FASTMET Process [147,151,152]
				INMETCO Process [147,153]
				Hi-QIP Process [154]
			Stainless Steel Dust
				ScanDust Process [147]
				STAR Process [147,155-157]
			Zinc-Bearing Dust
				Electrothermal Distillation Process [147,149,158,159]
				Waelz Kiln Process [147,149]
				MF Process [147,149]
				DSM Process [147]
				Z-STAR Process [147,160-163]
	References
Control of CO2 Emission
	Background and Challenges Toward a Low-Carbon Sintering Process of Iron Ores
		Introduction
		Reaction of Agglomeration Agents in the Sintering Process
		Updated Technologies for the Reduction of CO2 Emissions from the Iron-ore Sintering Process
			Utilization Technologies of Materials Containing Metallic Iron and/or Lower Oxides of Iron
			Injection Process of Hydrocarbon Gases to the Sintering Bed [2]
			Property Modification of Iron Ores Using Blast Furnace Gas [20]
			Replacement of Coke by Biomass Char [21]
		Summary
	BF Process
		BF Operation for CO2 Emission and Increased Steel Demand
		Agenda for the Demand and Supply of Iron Ore and Coal
		Low Reducing Agent and Low-Carbon Operation
		Present Status of Development of Low-Carbon Operation and Energy Saving
		Diversification of Reducing Agent
		Numerical Simulation?Modeling of BF and Process Integration
		Research Topics for Low-Carbon BF Operation
Future Steelmaking Process
	``COURSE50´´?CO2 Ultimate Reduction in Steelmaking Process by Innovative Technology for Cool Earth 50: CO2 Emiss...
		Introduction
		Progress in Hydrogen Reduction Part
		Progress in Carbon Capture Part
		Conclusions
	From Nonferrous Flash Smelting to Flash Ironmaking: Development of an Ironmaking Technology with Greatly Reduced...
		Introduction
		Description of Technology
		Kinetic Feasibility?Reduction Kinetics of Magnetite Concentrate Particles
			Experimental Work
			Definition of Parameters
			Experimental Results and Discussion
			Summary
		Tests in a Bench Flash Reactor
			Design of a Hydrogen/Oxygen Burner and CFD Simulation
			Simulation of the Bench Flash Reactor
		Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation?Ironmaking with Reformerless Application of Natural Gas
			Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation
			Material and Energy Balances
			Summary
		Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation?Ironmaking with External SMR
			Ironmaking Section
			Steam-Methane Reforming Section
			Material and Energy Balances
			Summary
		Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation?Hydrogen-Based Ironmaking
			Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation
			Material and Energy Balances
			Summary
		Economic Feasibility Analysis
			Capital Cost Estimation
			Operating Cost Estimation
			Carbon Dioxide Emissions Credit
			NPV Estimation Procedure
			Results
			Summary
		Further Development Work
	FINEX® Process?Process of Promise
		Introduction
		Process Description
		Effect of Raw Materials in the FINEX®
		Advantages of the FINEX Process
		Physical Observation of the Iron ore Fines During Reduction
		Continued Developments with FINEX®
Acknowledgments To Section 4.5.2
Glossary Used In Section 4.5.2
References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Y
	Z