Translating the Paris Agreement into Action in the Pacific (Advances in Global Change Research, 68)

Foreword
Introduction
Contents
Part I: Introductory Concepts and Techniques
	Chapter 1: Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Pacific Island Countries
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Energy Sector
			1.2.1 Estimating Emissions from the Energy Sector
				1.2.1.1 Stationary Combustion Sub-Sector
				1.2.1.2 Mobile Combustion Sub Sector
			1.2.2 Uncertainties in Energy Sector Estimation
		1.3 Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) Sector
			1.3.1 Estimating Emissions from Forestry and Other Land Use
			1.3.2 Estimating Emissions from the Agricultural Activities
				1.3.2.1 Enteric Fermentation
				1.3.2.2 Manure Management
				1.3.2.3 Rice Cultivation
				1.3.2.4 Synthetic Fertilizers
			1.3.3 Uncertainties in the Agriculture Sector
		1.4 Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU)
			1.4.1 Uncertainties in the IPPU Sector
		1.5 Waste Sector
			1.5.1 Estimating Methane Emissions from the Solid Waste Disposal Sites
				1.5.1.1 IPCC 2006 Waste Model
				1.5.1.2 LandGEM Model
			1.5.2 Estimating Methane Emissions from the Wastewater Treatment
			1.5.3 Uncertainties in the Waste Sector
		1.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 2: Mitigating Through Renewable Energy: An Overview of the Requirements and Challenges
		2.1 Introduction: Why Renewable Energy?
		2.2 Requirements for Renewable Energy
			2.2.1 Discovering the Requirements
			2.2.2 Renewable Energy Resource Requirements
			2.2.3 Human Resource Requirements
			2.2.4 Science and Technology Infrastructure
			2.2.5 Institutional Capacity
			2.2.6 Policy and Legislation
			2.2.7 Finance
		2.3 Capacity Building
			2.3.1 Market-Readiness of Technology
		2.4 The Challenges
			2.4.1 Differential Ability to Meet the Requirements
			2.4.2 Lack of Capacity
			2.4.3 Attracting New Players
			2.4.4 Assessment of RE as a Mitigating Agent
		2.5 Summary and Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 3: Modeling and Forecasting Renewable Energy Resources for Sustainable Power Generation: Basic Concepts and Predictive Model Results
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Basic Important Definitions/Concepts
		3.3 General Predictive Model Development and Forecasting Process
			3.3.1 Statistical Model Evaluation Metrics
		3.4 Brief Theory of Forecast Algorithms
			3.4.1 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
			3.4.2 Multiple Linear Regressions (MLR)
		3.5 Wind Speed Forecasting Case Study
			3.5.1 Study Site
			3.5.2 Outcomes of the Case Study
		3.6 Summary and Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 4: Life Cycle Analysis as a Tool in Estimating Avoided Emissions
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 A Simple Case Study
		4.3 Introduction to the Stages of LCA
		4.4 Goal and Scope Definition
			4.4.1 The Goal of an LCA
			4.4.2 The Scope of an LCA
				4.4.2.1 The Function of the Product
				4.4.2.2 The Functional Unit
				4.4.2.3 Reference Flow
				4.4.2.4 System Boundary
		4.5 Inventory Analysis and Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
		4.6 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
		4.7 LCA Analysis Software
			4.7.1 OpenLCA
				4.7.1.1 Modelling in openLCA
			4.7.2 Simapro
		References
Part II: Mitigation Actions
	Chapter 5: An Assessment of the Hydro Potential for Viti Levu, Fiji Using GIS Techniques
		5.1 Introduction
			5.1.1 The Power Scenario in Fiji
			5.1.2 Grid-Electricity Demand Trend
			5.1.3 Current Energy Situation for Fiji
			5.1.4 Main Challenges and Gaps in Energy Sector
			5.1.5 EFL’s Future Power Development Projects
			5.1.6 Energy Demand and Fossil Fuel Importation for Fiji
			5.1.7 GIS Technologies for Hydropower Survey
			5.1.8 Study Location
			5.1.9 Status and Investments in Hydropower Technology
		5.2 Hydropower Site Surveys in Fiji by FDoE
			5.2.1 Methodology for the Identification of Suitable Hydropower Sites
				5.2.1.1 GIS Modeling Technique
				5.2.1.2 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
				5.2.1.3 Identification of Suitable Hydropower Site
			5.2.2 Catchment Delineation
			5.2.3 Selection of Hydrological Model
			5.2.4 Assessment of Flow Rates
				5.2.4.1 SWAT Hydrological Model
				5.2.4.2 Calibration, Validation and Evaluation of Model
				5.2.4.3 Evaluation of Model
				5.2.4.4 Flow Duration Curve
			5.2.5 Potential Head Drop Estimation
			5.2.6 Hydropower Potential Calculation
			5.2.7 Preliminary Results of Hydro Potential Sites Based on Suitability Map
				5.2.7.1 GIS Based Preliminary Maps Representing Areas of Suitable Hydropower Sites
		5.3 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6: Waste to Energy: Biogas from Municipal Solid Waste for Power Generation
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Biogas Production and Technology
		6.3 Electricity Generation Capacity of Biogas Produced from OFMSW at Vunato Disposal Site
			6.3.1 OFMSW of Waste Disposed at Vunato
			6.3.2 Estimation of Electricity Generation Potential of Biogas Produced from OFMSW at Vunato: Scenario 1
				6.3.2.1 Sensitivity Analysis
		6.4 Comparison of Electricity Generation Between Anaerobic Digestion and Incineration Technologies for OFMSW at Vunato
			6.4.1 Power Generation Through MSW Incineration: Scenario 2
			6.4.2 Power Generation Through Anaerobic Digestion and Incineration of OFMSW: Scenario 3
		6.5 Avoided Carbon Emissions
		6.6 Barriers and Challenges
		6.7 Discussion
		6.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Viability of Commercial On-Shore Wind Farm Sites in Viti Levu, Fiji
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Background
			7.2.1 Energy Situation in Fiji
			7.2.2 Wind Power Generation in Fiji
				7.2.2.1 Butoni Wind Farm Installation
				7.2.2.2 Status of Power Generation
		7.3 Methodology
			7.3.1 Study Site and Wind Speed Statistics
			7.3.2 Probability Distribution Curves of Wind Speed Using MLE
			7.3.3 Error Evaluation for Best Curve Fit
				7.3.3.1 AIC and BIC
			7.3.4 Wind Direction Analysis
			7.3.5 Selected Best Fit PDF for Capacity Factor (CF) Equation
			7.3.6 Technical Aspects
			7.3.7 Economic Evaluation
			7.3.8 Avoided Emissions
		7.4 Results and Discussions
		7.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 8: Solar Energy for Power Generation in Fiji: History, Barriers and Potentials
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Review of Solar PV Development in Fiji
			8.2.1 Solar Home System (SHS)
			8.2.2 Solar PV in Off-Grid Island Resorts
			8.2.3 Solar PV Mini-grids for Remote Islands
			8.2.4 Solar PV for Nursing Stations and Telecommunications
			8.2.5 Solar PV Grid Connected System
			8.2.6 Solar PV for Electric Vehicle Charge
			8.2.7 Solar PV for Streetlights and Jetty Lights
		8.3 Development Plans
		8.4 Solar PV and Sustainable Development
		8.5 Barriers and Challenges
			8.5.1 Institutional
			8.5.2 Natural Disasters
			8.5.3 Technical
			8.5.4 Absence of Attractive Tariff for Solar PV Electricity Suppliers to Grid
			8.5.5 Lack of Streamline Processes for Starting Up a New Business
			8.5.6 Financing Opportunities for New Sustainable Energy Companies
		8.6 An Assessment of Solar Electricity Generation Potential for Fiji and Its Potential for Avoided Emission
			8.6.1 Method 1: Theoretical Solar Electricity Generation Potential and Its Avoided Emissions
				8.6.1.1 Potential Avoided Emissions
			8.6.2 Method 2: Solar Electricity Generation Potential with Other Renewable Energy Generation Using LEAP Tool
				8.6.2.1 Fiji’s Grid Electricity Model
				8.6.2.2 New Solar PV with New Hydro, Biomass, Wind and Geothermal Electricity Generation Technologies
				8.6.2.3 Potential Avoided Emissions
		8.7 Discussion
		8.8 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 9: A Life Cycle Analysis of the Potential Avoided Emissions from Coconut Oil-Based B5 Transportation Fuel in Fiji
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Methodology
		9.3 Potential of Local Biodiesel Production
		9.4 Scenario Development for a Future Copra Industry
		9.5 System Boundary for the LCA Study
		9.6 Estimation of Inputs and Results
			9.6.1 Coconut Plantation
			9.6.2 Transportation of Copra from Plantation to Mill
			9.6.3 Palm Oil Production in Coconut Mill
			9.6.4 Coconut Methyl Ester (CME) Production in Biodiesel Plant
				9.6.4.1 Methanol Production and Import
					Methanol Production
					Methanol Import
				9.6.4.2 Sodium Hydroxide Use
				9.6.4.3 Energy Requirements
			9.6.5 Reference System: Automotive Diesel Oil
				9.6.5.1 Diesel Production Phase
				9.6.5.2 Diesel Shipping Phase
				9.6.5.3 Diesel Combustion Phase
		9.7 Estimation of Avoided Emissions
			9.7.1 Avoided Emissions for Case A: Emissions Considering CME Production Without LCA
			9.7.2 Avoided Emissions for Case B: Considering Emissions Due to CME Production and Use
		9.8 Discussion
		9.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Pongamia Biodiesel Production Potential in Vanua Levu: A Full LCA of Emissions Reduction
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Assessment of Climatic Suitability
		10.3 Soil Assessment for Pongamia Farming
		10.4 Classes of Land Area in Vanua Levu for Agriculture and Forestry
		10.5 Categories of Land Ownership in Vanua Levu
		10.6 Site Availability for Pongamia Farming
		10.7 Assessment of Seed Requirement to Establish Pongamia Farms on Total Available Land
		10.8 Production Potential of Pongamia Oil from Total Available Land Area and from Existing 154 ha of Pongamia Farms
		10.9 Indigenous Ethanol Production as a Feedstock for Biodiesel
		10.10 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Pongamia Biodiesel Production
			10.10.1 Goal and Scope of Work
			10.10.2 Life Cycle Inventory
			10.10.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
				10.10.3.1 Global Warming Potential (GWP)
				10.10.3.2 Acidification Potential (AP) and Eutrophication Potential (EP) in Air
		10.11 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 11: Economic Viability of Jatropha Biodiesel Production on Available Land in the Island of Viti Levu
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Jatropha Agronomics
			11.2.1 Profiling and Propagation
			11.2.2 Harvesting and Harnessing
			11.2.3 Yield
		11.3 Jatropha Biodiesel (Jatropha Methyl Ester: JME)
			11.3.1 JME Production
		11.4 The Potential for Jatropha Production on Viti Levu
			11.4.1 Geography
			11.4.2 Rainfall
			11.4.3 Slope
			11.4.4 Temperature
			11.4.5 Altitude
			11.4.6 Drainage
		11.5 Production Potential
			11.5.1 Geographic Information System (GIS) Analysis
			11.5.2 Suitable Residual Land
			11.5.3 Capacity
		11.6 Jatropha Economics
			11.6.1 Stability Status
			11.6.2 Total Capital Investment (TCI)
			11.6.3 Total Variable Cost (TVC)
			11.6.4 Total Production Cost (TPC)
			11.6.5 The Return
			11.6.6 Sensitivity Analysis of Total Production Cost
				11.6.6.1 Case A: JEE
				11.6.6.2 Case B: Micro Emulsion
				11.6.6.3 Case C: Pure Oil
		11.7 Diesel Displacement
		11.8 Net Avoided Emissions and Carbon Sequestration
		11.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 12: Potential for Biobutanol Production in Fiji from Sugarcane and Timber Industry Residues: Contribution to Avoided Emissions
		12.1 Introduction- Background to Fiji’s Biofuel Industry
		12.2 Biobutanol as an Alternative Fuel for Transportation and Power Generation
			12.2.1 Advantages of Using Butanol as a Fuel
			12.2.2 Pretreatment
			12.2.3 Pretreatment Methods
				12.2.3.1 Physical (Mechanical Comminution)
				12.2.3.2 Alkali Pretreatment
				12.2.3.3 Dilute Acid Pretreatment
				12.2.3.4 Steam Explosion
				12.2.3.5 Autohydrolysis
				12.2.3.6 Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment (LHW)
			12.2.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
			12.2.5 Fermentation
		12.3 Production and Yield of Bio-Butanol
			12.3.1 Methodology
				12.3.1.1 Compositional Analysis of Raw Sugarcane Bagasse and Hog Fuel
				12.3.1.2 Pretreatment of the Feedstock
				12.3.1.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Feedstock After Pretreatment
				12.3.1.4 Fermentation
			12.3.2 Analysis
				12.3.2.1 Sugar Analysis
				12.3.2.2 Acid Analysis
				12.3.2.3 Acetone, Butanol and Ethanol Analysis
				12.3.2.4 Statistical Analysis
		12.4 Results and Discussion
			12.4.1 Compositional Analysis of Raw Lignocellulosic Feedstocks
			12.4.2 Dilute Acid Pretreatment
			12.4.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
			12.4.4 Fermentation of Substrates
			12.4.5 Availability of Agro-Industrial Feedstock in Fiji
		12.5 Estimation of Annual Butanol Production Capacity in Fiji Using Agro-Industrial Residues
			12.5.1 Butanol from Bagasse as per Values Obtained from This Study
			12.5.2 Butanol from Molasses as per Values from Literature
			12.5.3 Butanol from Sugarcane Trash
				12.5.3.1 Assumptions
				12.5.3.2 Sample Calculations
			12.5.4 Butanol from Hog Fuel
			12.5.5 Contribution to Emission Reduction
		12.6 Summary and Conclusion
		References
Part III: Outcomes
	Chapter 13: Summary of Outcomes and Implications for the Fiji NDC Implementation Roadmap
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Summary of Outcomes
			13.2.1 Hydropower
			13.2.2 Solid Biomass and WTE for Power Generation
			13.2.3 Viability of Onshore Wind Farms
			13.2.4 Solar Energy for Power Generation
			13.2.5 Coconut Oil as a Source of Transportation Fuel
			13.2.6 Second Generation Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production
			13.2.7 Bio-Butanol as a Fuel Additive for Petrol Engine Fuels
		13.3 A Critique of the Present Energy Strategies and Implications on the Roadmap
		13.4 Recommendations