TOXOPLASMOSIS OF ANIMALS AND HUMANS

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Abbreviations
Preface to Third Edition
Author
Chapter 1 Introduction and History of Toxoplasma gondii
	1.1 Introduction and History
	1.2 Discovery of the Parasite
	1.3 Transmission
		1.3.1 Congenital Transmission
		1.3.2 Carnivorism
		1.3.3 Fecal–Oral, Sexual Cycle, and Discovery of the Oocyst
		1.3.4 Discovery of the Full Life Cycle and Developmental Stages in the Intestine of Cats
	1.4 Gratitude
Chapter 2 Biology of Toxoplasma gondii
	2.1 Taxonomic Classification
	2.2 Structure and Life Cycle
		2.2.1 Tachyzoite
			2.2.1.1 Structure
			2.2.1.2 Host Invasion
			2.2.1.3 Multiplication by Endodyogeny
		2.2.2 Bradyzoites and Tissue Cysts
			2.2.2.1 Structure
			2.2.2.2 Tissue Cyst Distribution in Host Tissues
			2.2.2.3 Tissue Cyst Rupture and Reactivation
	2.3 Life Cycle in the Definitive Host, the Cat
		2.3.1 Bradyzoite-Induced Cycle
			2.3.1.1 Enteroepithelial Cycle
		2.3.2 Oocyst-Induced Cycle
		2.3.3 Tachyzoite-Induced Cycle
	2.4 Life Cycle in the Intermediate Hosts, Including Humans and Cats
		2.4.1 Oocyst-Induced Infections
			2.4.1.1 Mice
			2.4.1.2 Rats
		2.4.2 Bradyzoite-Induced Infections
	2.5 Molecular Biology
	2.6 Transmission
		2.6.1 Transmission by Oocysts
			2.6.1.1 Cats are Everywhere
			2.6.1.2 Fatal Feline Attraction
			2.6.1.3 Excretion of Oocysts by Naturally Infected Domestic Cats
			2.6.1.4 Excretion of Oocysts by Naturally Infected Wild Felids
			2.6.1.5 Dispersal of Oocysts in the Environment
			2.6.1.6 Environmental Resistance of Oocysts
			2.6.1.7 Detection of Oocysts in Environmental Samples
			2.6.1.8 Infectiousness of the Oocyst for Humans
		2.6.2 Transmission by Tissue Cysts
			2.6.2.1 Effect of Freezing, Salting and Heat, Irradiation, High Pressure, and Vacuum Packing on Tissue Cysts
		2.6.3 Transmission by Tachyzoites
	2.7 Epidemiology
	2.8 Host–Parasite Relationships
		2.8.1 Pathogenesis in General
		2.8.2 Ocular Toxoplasmosis
		2.8.3 Pathogenesis of Abortion
	2.9 Diagnosis
		2.9.1 Serologic
			2.9.1.1 Dye Test
			2.9.1.2 IHA
			2.9.1.3 MAT
			2.9.1.4 IFA
			2.9.1.5 ELISA
			2.9.1.6 Western Blotting
			2.9.1.7 Avidity Tests
			2.9.1.8 Rapid Tests
		2.9.2 Detection of T.gondii DNA
		2.9.3 Immunohistochemical Staining
	2.10 Validation of Serology by Isolation of Viable T. gondii
	2.11 Protective Immunity and Immunoprophylaxis
	2.12 Treatment
	2.13 Prevention and Control
		2.13.1 Humans
		2.13.2 Cats
		2.13.3 Zoos
Chapter 3 Techniques for Studying Toxoplasma gondii
	3.1 Laboratory Maintenance of T.gondii
		3.1.1 Cultivation
			3.1.1.1 Tachyzoites
			3.1.1.2 Tissue Cysts
			3.1.1.3 Merozoites Enteroepithelial Stages
			3.1.1.4 Oocysts
	3.2 Isolation of T. gondii
		3.2.1 Bioassays of Tissues in Mice
			3.2.1.1 Body Fluids
			3.2.1.2 Acutely Infected Tissues
			3.2.1.3 Chronically Infected Tissues
			3.2.1.4 Bioassays of T. gondii in Cats
			3.2.1.5 Inoculation and Examination of Mice for T. gondii
	3.3 Cryopreservation
	3.4 Diagnosis
		3.4.1 Cytology, Histopathologic, and Immunohistochemical Procedures
			3.4.1.1 Diagnosis of Protozoal Abortion
	3.5 Immunohistological Examinations
	3.6 Serologic Procedures
		3.6.1 Modified Agglutination Test
		3.6.2 Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test
		3.6.3 ELISA
			3.6.3.1 General Procedure: Antigen Source
		3.6.4 Procedure for Avidity ELISA
	3.7 Polymerase Chain Reaction
		3.7.1 Extraction of DNA from Feces
		3.7.2 Protocol for the Extraction of DNA from Fresh or Fixed Materials
		3.7.3 Detection of T.gondii in Soil Samples
		3.7.4 Options for Transporting DNA Prior to Analysis
	3.8 Safety Concerns and Precautions While Working with T.gondii
Chapter 4 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Humans (Homo sapiens)
	4.1 Serologic Prevalence
	4.2 Parasite Prevalence
	4.3 Clinical Infections
		4.3.1 Postnatally Acquired Toxoplasmosis
			4.3.1.1 Toxoplasmosis Outbreaks and Lessons Learned
			4.3.1.2 Brazil, Hotspot for Outbreaks
			4.3.1.3 Meatborne Outbreaks
			4.3.1.4 Multi-factorial Outbreaks in French Guiana and Suriname
			4.3.1.5 Conclusions
		4.3.2 Prenatally Transmitted (Congenital) Toxoplasmosis
	4.4 Parasite Strain Genetics and Clinical Toxoplasmosis in General
	4.5 Diagnosis
		4.5.1 Lymphoglandular Toxoplasmosis
		4.5.2 In the Immune-Deficient Patient
		4.5.3 In Ocular Toxoplasmosis
		4.5.4 In the Pregnant Woman
		4.5.5 In the Fetus
		4.5.6 In the Baby
	4.6 Treatment
	4.7 Prevention
		4.7.1 Immunosuppressed Patients
		4.7.2 Prophylactic Treatment during Pregnancy
	Acknowledgments
Chapter 5 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Cats
	5.1 Domestic Cats
		5.1.1 Prevalence
			5.1.1.1 Serologic Investigations
			5.1.1.2 Isolation of Viable T.gondii in Tissues of Cats
			5.1.1.3 Detection of T.gondii DNA in Tissues of Cats
			5.1.1.4 Prevalence of T.gondii Oocysts in Cats
		5.1.2 Clinical Infections and Oocyst Excretion
		5.1.3 Genetic Types of T. gondii in Domestic Cats
		5.1.4 Experimental Infections in Cats
			5.1.4.1 Immunization of Cats to Prevent Oocyst Excretion
			5.1.4.2 Serological Responses of Experimentally Infected Cats
			5.1.4.3 Pathogenesis of Congenital Infection
	5.2 Other Felids
		5.2.1 Prevalence
			5.2.1.1 Serologic Investigations
			5.2.1.2 Isolation and Genetic Characterization of Viable T.gondii from Wild Felids
			5.2.1.3 Detection of T.gondii DNA from Wild Felids
			5.2.1.4 Prevalence of T.gondii Oocysts in Wild Felids
	5.3 Clinical Toxoplasmosis in Wild Felids
	Acknowledgments
Chapter 6 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Dogs (Canis familiaris)
	6.1 Natural Infections
		6.1.1 Serologic Investigations
		6.1.2 Isolation of Viable T.gondii from Tissues of Apparently Healthy Adult Dogs
		6.1.3 Detection of T.gondii DNA in Tissues of Dogs
		6.1.4 Detection of T.gondii DNA in Feces of Asymptomatic Dogs
		6.1.5 Clinical Infections
	6.2 Experimental Infections
	6.3 Genetic Diversity of T.gondii in Dogs
	6.4 Conclusions
Chapter 7 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Pigs (Sus scrofa)
	7.1 Domestic Pigs
		7.1.1 Natural Infections in Domestic Pigs
			7.1.1.1 Serologic Investigations
			7.1.1.2 Serological Tests Comparison on Sera from Naturally Infected Pigs
			7.1.1.3 Isolation of Viable T.gondii from Pig Tissues
			7.1.1.4 Detection of T.gondii DNA in Pig Tissues
			7.1.1.5 Clinical Toxoplasmosis
		7.1.2 Experimental Infections
			7.1.2.1 Clinical
			7.1.2.2 Immunity
			7.1.2.3 Congenital Toxoplasmosis
			7.1.2.4 Tissue Cyst Formation and Persistence of T.gondii in Tissues
			7.1.2.5 Viability of T.gondii in Cured Pork Products
			7.1.2.6 Survival of T.gondii in Vacuum-Packed Pork
	7.2 T.gondii Infections in Wild Swine (Boars)
		7.2.1 Seroprevalence
		7.2.2 Isolation of Viable T. gondii from Tissues of Wild Swine
		7.2.3 Detection of T. gondii DNA from Tissues of Wild Swine
		7.2.4 Congenital Toxoplasmosis in Wild Swine
	7.3 Genetic Types of T.gondii in Pigs
Chapter 8 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Sheep
	8.1 Natural Infections
		8.1.1 Serologic Investigations
		8.1.2 Isolation and Genetic Characterization of T.gondii from Tissues of Sheep
		8.1.3 Tissue Cyst Burden
		8.1.4 Detection of T.gondii DNA in Sheep
		8.1.5 Abortion and Lamb Losses Due to Toxoplasmosis
		8.1.6 Venereal Transmission
		8.1.7 Genetic Variability of T.gondii in Sheep
	8.2 Experimental Infections
		8.2.1 Clinical Disease in Orally Inoculated Sheep
		8.2.2 Pathogenesis of Abortion
		8.2.3 Reducing Parasite Load by Immunization
		8.2.4 Reducing Abortion by Immunization of Ewes
		8.2.5 Chemoprophylaxis
	8.3 Diagnosis and Pathogenesis of T.gondii-Induced Abortion
	8.4 Reducing Losses in Sheep Due to Toxoplasmosis through Prophylaxis
	Acknowledgments
Chapter 9 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Goats (Capra hircus)
	9.1 Natural Infections
		9.1.1 Serologic Investigations
		9.1.2 Isolation of Viable T.gondii from Tissues of Goats
		9.1.3 Detection of T.gondii DNA in Blood, Milk, and Tissues of Goats
		9.1.4 Clinical Infections
		9.1.5 Clinical Toxoplasmosis in Adult Goats
		9.1.6 Neonatal Toxoplasmosis
		9.1.7 Genetic Diversity of T.gondii in Goats
	9.2 Experimental Infections
		9.2.1 Earlier (pre-1988) Observations
		9.2.2 Post-1988 Observations on Abortion and Protection
		9.2.3 Excretion of T.gondii in Milk of Experimentally Infected Goats
		9.2.4 Venereal and Congenital Transmission of T. gondii
		9.2.5 Tissue Parasitization at 30 and 90 Days and Survival of Tissue Cysts in Vacuum Packing in Goats Fed T.gondii Oocysts
			9.2.5.1 Clinical, Biochemical, Serological
			9.2.5.2 Vacuum Packing Survival
		9.2.6 T.gondii in Goat Milk and Public Health Significance
	9.3 Treatment/Prophylaxis for Abortion
Chapter 10 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Cattle (Bos spp.)
	10.1 Natural Infections
		10.1.1 Serologic Investigations
		10.1.2 Isolation of Viable T.gondii
		10.1.3 Detection of T.gondii DNA from Cattle Tissues
		10.1.4 Clinical Toxoplasmosis, Congenital Infections, and Abortion
	10.2 Experimental Infections
		10.2.1 Persistence of T.gondii in Tissues or Fluids
		10.2.2 Congenital Transmission
	10.3 Public Health Significance of Toxoplasmosis in Cattle
		10.3.1 Beef
		10.3.2 Milk
	10.4 Genetic Diversity of T.gondii in Cattle
	10.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
Chapter 11 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Water Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis)
	11.1 Serologic Prevalence
	11.2 Attempts at Isolating Viable T.gondii
	11.3 Presence of Tissue Cysts in Tissues or Milk
Chapter 12 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Equids (Horse, Donkey, Mule)
	12.1 Serologic Prevalence
		12.1.1 Serologic Investigations in Horses
		12.1.2 Serologic Prevalence in Donkeys
		12.1.3 Serologic Prevalence in Mules
		12.1.4 Serologic Prevalence in Wild Equids
	12.2 Isolation of Viable T.gondii from Tissues of Horses and Donkey
	12.3 Prevalence of T.gondii DNA
	12.4 Clinical Infections
	12.5 Genetic Diversity
	12.6 Public Health and Social Aspects of T.gondii Infections in Horses and Donkeys
Chapter 13 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Camels (Camelus spp.)
	13.1 Natural Infections
		13.1.1 Serologic Investigations
		13.1.2 Isolation of Viable T. gondii from Tissues
		13.1.3 Prevalence of T. gondii DNA in Camel Tissues
		13.1.4 Presence of T.gondii in Camel Milk
Chapter 14 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in South American Camelids (Lama spp.)
	14.1 Seroprevalence
	14.2 Isolation and Molecular Characterization
	14.3 Clinical Toxoplasmosis
Chapter 15 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Chickens (Gallus domesticus)
	15.1 Natural Infections
		15.1.1 Prevalence
			15.1.1.1 Serologic Investigations
			15.1.1.2 Isolation of Viable T. gondii
			15.1.1.3 Detection of T. gondii DNA
			15.1.1.4 Detection of T. gondii by Histopathology and Immunohistochemistry
			15.1.1.5 Comparison of Serology, PCR Techniques, and Bioassay for the Detection of T. gondii
		15.1.2 Clinical Infections
		15.1.3 Epidemiology and Use of Sentinel Chickens
		15.1.4 Genetic Diversity of Viable T. gondii Isolates
	15.2 Experimental Infections
		15.2.1 Clinical and Diagnosis
		15.2.2 Effect of Breed/Strain of Chickens, T. gondii Genotype on Toxoplasmosis in Chickens
		15.2.3 Effect of T. gondii Genotype, Seroconversion, Tissue Parasitization, and Chemoprophylaxis on Toxoplasmosis in Chickens
		15.2.4 Concurrent Infections
	15.3 Conclusions
Chapter 16 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Other Avian Species (Excludes Gallus domesticus)
	16.1 Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo)
	16.2 Ducks (Anas spp.) and Geese
	16.3 Ostriches (Struthio camelus) and Other Ratites
	16.4 Other Wild Avian Species
		16.4.1 Carnivorous Birds
		16.4.2 Herbivorous/Insectivorous Birds
		16.4.3 Migratory Birds
	16.5 Clinical Toxoplasmosis in Wild Birds
	16.6 Genetic Diversity of T. gondii Isolates
	16.7 Conclusions
Chapter 17 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Non-human Primates
	17.1 Natural Infections
		17.1.1 Prevalence
		17.1.2 Clinical Toxoplasmosis
		17.1.3 Genetic Diversity
	17.2 Experimental Infections
	17.3 Conclusion
Chapter 18 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Australasian Marsupials
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Zoo Animals Outside of Australia and New Zealand
	18.3 Infections in Free-Range Marsupials in Australasia
		18.3.1 Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)
		18.3.2 Kangaroos
		18.3.3 Wombats (Vombatus ursinus)
		18.3.4 Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby (Petrogale penicillata)
		18.3.5 Eastern Quoll (Dasyurus viverrinus)
		18.3.6 Congenital/Neonatal Transmission
		18.3.7 Other Marsupials
	18.4. Diagnosis
	18.5 Treatment
	18.6 Genetic Diversity of T. gondii from Marsupials
		18.6.1 Free-Range Marsupials
		18.6.2 Captive Marsupials
	18.7. Public health importance
Chapter 19 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Marine Mammals
	19.1 Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris nereis, Enhydra lutris kenyoni)
		19.1.1 Serologic Investigations
		19.1.2 I solation of Viable T. gondii or Parasite DNA
		19.1.3 Clinical Toxoplasmosis in Sea Otters
		19.1.4 Neonatal/Congenital Toxoplasmosis in Sea Otters
		19.1.5 Genetic Types and Clinical Toxoplasmosis in Sea Otters
	19.2 California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus)
	19.3 Dolphins
	19.4 Hawaiian Monk Seal
	19.5 Miscellaneous Marine Mammals
	19.6 Genetic Typing of DNA from Marine Mammals Excluding Sea Otters
	19.7 Public Health Significance
	19.8 Conclusion
Chapter 20 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Deer and Other Cervids
	20.1 Prevalence of T. gondii Infection
		20.1.1 White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
		20.1.2 Elk (Wapiti, Cervus canadensis)
		20.1.3 Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus)
		20.1.4 Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)
		20.1.5 Other Cervids
		20.1.6 Detection of T. gondii DNA in Venison
		20.1.7 Isolation of Viable T. gondii
	20.2 Genotypes of T. gondii from Cervids
	20.3 Clinical Infections
	20.4 Public Health Significance
Chapter 21 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Yak (Bos grunniens), Bison (Bison spp.), and Other Wild Ruminants
	21.1 Toxoplasmosis in Yak (Bos grunniens)
	21.2 Toxoplasmosis in Other Wild Ruminants
		21.2.1 Seroprevalence
		21.2.2 T. gondii DNA
		21.2.3 Clinical
Chapter 22 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Bears (Ursus spp.)
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Subclinical T.gondii Infection in Bears (Ursus spp.)
		22.2.1 Black Bears (Ursus americanus)
			22.2.1.1 Serological Investigations
			22.2.1.2 Isolation of Viable T. gondii
			22.2.1.3 Biology and Transmission
		22.2.2 Brown Bears (Ursus arctos)
		22.2.3 Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus)
	22.3 Clinical Toxoplasmosis in Bears
	22.4 Genetic Diversity
	22.5 Public Health Significance
Chapter 23 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Wild Canids
	23.1 Prevalence
		23.1.1 Serological Investigations
		23.1.2 Isolation of Viable T. gondii
		23.1.3 Detection of T. gondii DNA
	23.2 Clinical Toxoplasmosis
	23.3 Genetic Diversity
	23.4 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
Chapter 24 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Rodents
	24.1 Prevalence
		24.1.1 Serologic Investigations
		24.1.2 Isolation of Viable T. gondii from Rodent Tissues
		24.1.3 Detection of T. gondii DNA
	24.2 Clinical Toxoplasmosis in Rodents
	24.3 Genetic Diversity of T. gondii from Rodents
	24.4 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
Chapter 25 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Rabbits (Oryctolagus spp.) and Hares (Lepus spp.)
	25.1 Serologic Prevalence
	25.2 Parasitologic Prevalence
	25.3 Clinical Infections
	25.4 Genotypes of T. gondii from Rabbits and Hares
Chapter 26 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Bats
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Seroprevalence
	26.3 Detection of T.gondii DNA
	26.4 Isolation of Viable T. gondii and Genetic Characterization
	26.5 Clinical Toxoplasmosis in Bats
Chapter 27 Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Miscellaneous Animals
	27.1 Pandas (Ailurus fulgens, Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
	27.2 Hibernating and Poikilothermic Animals
	27.3 Other Miscellaneous Animals
		27.3.1 Serologic Investigation
		27.3.2 Isolation of Viable T. gondii
		27.3.3 Clinical Toxoplasmosis
			27.3.3.1 Slender-Tailed Meerkats (Suricata suricatta)
			27.3.3.2 European Mole (Talpa europaea)
			27.3.3.3 Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis)
			27.3.3.4 Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox)
References
Index