Toxoplasma Gondii: Prevalence and Role in Health and Disease

Contents
Preface
Chapter 1
Toxoplasma gondii: Introduction to Parasite Life Cycle and Disease
	Abstract
	1. Brief History of Parasite Discovery
	2. Intermediate Host Infection
		2.1. Asexual Reproduction of Toxoplasma gondii
		2.2. Host Cell Adhesion and Invasion
		2.3. Tissue Cyst Formation
	3. Human Toxoplasmosis
		3.1. Neurological Manifestations
		3.2. Ocular Manifestations
		3.3. Congenital Malformations
	4. Definitive Host Infection
		4.1. Sexual Reproduction of Toxoplasma gondii
		4.2. Seroprevalence and Treatment in Cats
	References
Chapter 2
Ultrastructure of Tachyzoite, Sporozoite  and Bradyzoite Forms
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. The Pellicle
	3. Cytoskeleton
		3.1. Microtubules and Tubulin Related Structures
		3.2. Conoid
		3.3. Actin and Myosin
		3.4 Subpellicular Network (SPN)
	4. Secretory Organelles
		4.1. Micronemes and Rhoptries
		4.2. Dense Granules
	5. Other Organelles
		5.1. Amylopectin Granules
		5.2. Lipid Bodies
		5.3. Nucleus
		5.4. Endoplasmic Reticulum
		5.5. Golgi Complex
		5.6. Mitochondrion
		5.7. Apicoplast
		5.8. Acidocalcisomes
		5.9. Large Anterior Cytoplasmic Vacuole of Extracellular  Tachyzoite (TgLACVET)
	6. Intravacuolar Structures
	References
Chapter 3
Toxoplasma gondii Entry Mechanisms  and Establishment of the  Parasitophorous Vacuole
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Host Cell Recognition and Adhesion
	3. Gliding Motility
		3.1. Regulation of Adhesin Secretion
	4. Active Invasion
	5. Other Mechanisms for T. Gondii Internalization
	6. Establishment of the Parasitophorous Vacuole
		6.1. Host Autophagy Controls the Toxoplasma Growth
		6.2. Non-Classical Mechanisms of Parasite Control and Autophagy Proteins
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4
Cystogenesis Process in Toxoplasma gondii
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Cystogenesis In Vitro
	3. Mechanisms That Induce Cystogenesis
	4. The Cyst Wall and Matrix
	5. Modifications of the Host Cells during Cystogenesis
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5
Toxoplasma gondii Cell Division:  Back to the Source
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Structural Insight into Endodyogeny
		2.1. Nuclear Events – S Phase and Mitosis
		2.2. Daughter Cell Assembly
	3. Regulation of Cell Cycle Progression
		3.1. Coordination by Physical Tethers
		3.2. Global Regulators
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 6
Epigenetic Regulation Affects Essential Mechanisms in Toxoplasma gondii
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. The “Histone Code”
	3. Post-Translational Modifications in Toxoplasma
	4. The Three Pillars of Epigenetic Regulation
	5. HDAC Inhibitors
	References
Chapter 7
The Balance between Host Cell-Autonomous Immunity and Toxoplasma gondii  Evasion Strategies
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Host-Toxoplasma gondii Coadaptation:  An Arsenal of Survival Strategies
		2.1. Host Signaling Pathways and Regulation of Host Gene  Expression by Toxoplasma gondii
		2.2. Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species Partially Control  Toxoplasma gondii
		2.3. Interferon-Inducible GTPases and the Major Role of Parasite Secreted Virulence Factors
		2.4. Autophagy and the Major Role of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor  in Blockage of Autophagy-Mediated Toxoplasma gondii Degradation
	References
Chapter 8
Purinergic Signaling in the Host Resistance to Toxoplasma gondii Infection
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1.  P2 Receptors Contribute to Immune Responses and Host Protection
		1.2. The Contribution of P2Y Receptors in the Cellular Host  Defense Against T. gondii
	2. The P2x7 Receptor Contribution  During T. Gondii Infection
		2.1. The Contribution of P2X7 Receptor in the Cellular Immune  Response Against T. gondii
		2.2. The Effect of P2X7 Receptor on the Systemic Immune Response  during Experimental Toxoplasmosis
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9
Metastatic-Like Phenotype  of Monocytes/Macrophages Induced  by Toxoplasma gondii Infection:  MMPS, UPA/UPAR and CD147 Involvement  at Early Infection and Dissemination
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Dissemination of T. gondii Throughout the Host
		1.2. Metastatic Like Phenotype of T. gondii Infected Leukocytes
	2. Materials and Methods
		2.1. Animals and Parasites
		2.2. In vivo Infection and Tissue Removal
		2.3. Immunofluorescence Microscopy
		2.4. In situ Zymography
		2.5. Immunoprecipitation and Zymography
		2.6. Densitometric Assays
		2.7. Statistical Analysis
	3. Results
		3.1. MMPs and CD147 and In Vivo Oral Infection
		3.2. Enzymatic Activity at the Site of Entry after Oral T. gondii Infection
		3.3. In Situ Expression of MMP-9 and MMP-2 at Ileum of T. gondii Infected C57BL/6 and C57BL/6 IFNγ-/- Mice
		3.4. In situ Expression of CD147 at Ileum of T. gondii Infected  C57BL/6 IFNγ+/+ and C57BL/6 IFNγ-/-
		3.5. In Situ Expression of CD147 and MMP-9 at the Lungs  of T. gondii Infected C57BL/6 and C57BL/6 IFNγ-/-
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10
Over the Top:  Armwrestling between Toxoplasma gondii and Host Skeletal Muscle Tissue
	Abstract
	1. Introduction: Muscle Tissue.  Biological Characteristics
	2. Muscle as a Vehicle for Toxoplasma gondii Transmission
		2.1. Commercial Importance of T. gondii Infection in Skeletal Muscle
	3. Toxoplasmosis and Myositis – Clinical Evidence
	4. Toxoplasmosis and Myositis –  Myogenesis and Regeneration
	5. Toxoplasma – Skeletal Muscle Cell Interactions
		5.1. The Influence of Muscle on Parasite Stage Conversion
		5.2. T. gondii Induces Host Cell Cycle Changes
		5.3. Mitochondrial Interaction
		5.4. Structural Skeletal Muscle Cell Alterations
		5.5. Autophagy and Host Cell Death
		5.6. Skeletal Muscle Cell Activation
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 11
Current Treatment of Toxoplasmosis
	Abstract
	Introduction
	2. Current Treatment of Toxoplasmosis
	3. Mechanisms of Action of Drugs Used for  the Treatment of Toxoplasmosis
		3.1. Folic Acid Antagonists
		3.2. Macrolides and CLN Antibiotics
		3.3. Atovaquone (ATV)
	4. Adverse Effects and Problems Related to the Treatment
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12
Advances in the Development of Treatments for the Chronic Phase of Toxoplasmosis
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Experimental Models for Studying  the Chronic Phase of Toxoplasmosis
		2.1. In Vitro Models
		2.2. In Vivo Models of Chronic Infection
	3. Inhibitors Showing Activity against Bradyzoites
		3.1. Cytochrome bc1 Inhibitors
		3.2. Factor IF2-(
		3.3. Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinase 1 (CDPK1)
		3.4. Cathepsin L Inhibitors
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13
Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection  in South America
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Epidemiology in South America
	References
Chapter 14
Cerebral Toxoplasmosis in People  Living with HIV/AIDS
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Toxoplasma Gondii Antigens and Host Defenses
	3. Cerebral Toxoplasmosis in Acquired  Immunodeficiency Syndrome
	4. Diagnosis Approach
	5. Clinical and Radiological Manifestations
	6. Differential Diagnosis
	7. Laboratorial Diagnosis
		7.1. Molecular Diagnosis
		7.2. Serological Diagnosis
		7.3. Histopathological Diagnosis
	8. Treatment
	9. Pharmacologic Prophylaxis
		9.1. Primary Prophylaxis
		9.2. Secondary Prophylaxis
	10. Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS)
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15
Toxoplasma gondii: Ocular Disease
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 16
Imaging Techniques in the Study  of Toxoplasma gondii
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Microscopy and Toxoplasma gondii – Brief History to Latest Advances
		1.2. Choosing the Right Tools for the Job – Applying Microscopy to Suit Research Needs
	2. Factors Involved in Capturing Microscopy Data
		2.1. Using the Right Subjects
			2.1.1. Toxoplasma gondii Strains
			2.1.2. Fluorescent Proteins
			2.1.3. Calcium Ion Indicators
			2.1.4. Artificial Fluorescent Probes
		2.2. Sample Processing
			2.2.1. Sample Fixation
			2.2.2. Permeabilization
			2.2.3. Blocking
			2.2.4. Antibodies
			2.2.5. Counter Stains
			2.2.6. Mounting Media
		2.3. Live Sample Preparation
		2.4. Capturing
		2.5. Post-Processing/Analyzing Data
	Conclusion
	References
About the Editors
Index