THz Communications: Paving the Way Towards Wireless Tbps (Springer Series in Optical Sciences, 234)

Contents
1 Introduction to THz Communications
	1.1 Need for THz Communications
	1.2 History of THz Communications
	1.3 Applications and Requirements
	1.4 Structure of the Book
	References
Part I Propagation and Channel Modelling 1: Channel Measurement Techniques
	2 Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Atmospheric Measurements with Terahertz Pulses
		2.3 THz-TDS Methodology
		2.4 Modelling of THz Pulse Propagation in the Atmosphere
		2.5 THz-TDS in Areas Relevant to Wireless Communications
		References
	3 Measurements with Modulated Signals
		3.1 THz Communication Measurements
		3.2 3D Printed THz Dielectric Waveguides
		3.3 THz Demultiplexing
		References
	4 Vector Network Analyzer (VNA)
		4.1 Scattering Parameters
		4.2 Network Analyzer Architecture
		4.3 System Error Correction and Traceability
		4.4 Quasi-static Channel Characterization
		References
	5 THz Broadband Channel Sounders
		5.1 THz CS Overview
		5.2 Broadband Baseband Units for THz Channel Sounding
		5.3 Pseudo-Noise (PN)-based correlation: Sliding Correlator
		5.4 Real-Time Sampling Broadband Baseband Units for THz CS
		5.5 PN-Sequence Correlation-Based Subsampling System
		5.6 Techniques for Expanding Bandwidth of THz Channel Sounder
		5.7 Up- and Down-Conversion Principles for THz Sounders
		5.8 Correction of RF-Hardware Influences of THz Channel Sounder
		5.9 Measurement Setup and Procedure at THz
		5.10 Conclusion
		References
Part II Propagation and Channel Modelling 2: Basic Propagation Phenomena
	6 Free Space Loss and Atmospheric Effects
		6.1 Experimental Measurements
			6.1.1 Power Attenuation in the Atmosphere (Free Space Loss)
			6.1.2 Time Delay in the Atmosphere
		6.2 Theoretical Model
			6.2.1 Free Space Path Loss
			6.2.2 Molecular Absorption
			6.2.3 Rain and Fog Loss
		References
	7 Reflection, Scattering, and Transmission (Including Material Parameters)
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Material Characterization
		7.3 Specular and Nonspecular Reflection
		7.4 Transmission and Volume Effects
		References
	8 Diffraction and Blockage
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Diffraction
			8.2.1 Diffraction Models
			8.2.2 Diffraction Measurements
		8.3 Modelling of Human Blockage
		8.4 Communication in Obstructed Line-of Sight
		References
	9 Noise and Interference
		9.1 Molecular Absorption Noise
			9.1.1 Background Noise
			9.1.2 Self-Induced Noise
		9.2 Multi-User Interference
			9.2.1 Ultra-Broadband Short-Range Terahertz Communications
			9.2.2 Directional Long-Range Terahertz Communications
		9.3 Conclusion
		References
Part III Propagation and Channel Modelling 3: Modelling and Measurements in Complex Environments
	10 Indoor Environments
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Indoor Measurements and Empirical Channel Modeling
			10.2.1 Indoor Propagation Characteristics
			10.2.2 Channel Sounding and Modeling
		10.3 Deterministic Propagation Modeling
		References
	11 Intra-device and Proximity Channel Modeling
		11.1 Intra-device Channel Modeling
		11.2 Proximity Channel Modeling
		References
	12 Backhaul/Fronthaul Outdoor Links
		12.1 System Design of Wireless Backhaul/Fronthaul
		12.2 Challenges of Wireless Backhaul/Fronthaul
		References
	13 Smart Rail Mobility
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Train-to-Infrastructure Inside-Station Channel Characteristics at the Terahertz Band
		13.3 Intra-wagon Channel Characteristics at the Terahertz Band
		13.4 Future Directions on Smart Rail Mobility
		References
	14 Data Centers
		14.1 Benefits and Challenges of THz Communication in a Data Center
		14.2 Environment Description and Setup
		14.3 Inter-rack Measurements
		14.4 Intra-rack Measurements
		14.5 Conclusion
		References
	15 Vehicular Environments
		15.1 Motivation and Specifics of THz Vehicular Communications
		15.2 Vehicle-Body Blockage
			15.2.1 Measuring the Impact of Blockage
			15.2.2 Blockage Mitigation
		15.3 Directional Interference in Vehicular Setups
			15.3.1 Measuring the Impact of Interference
			15.3.2 Interference Mitigation
		15.4 Conclusions
		References
	16 Stochastic Channel Models
		16.1 Review of THz Stochastic Channel Models
			16.1.1 Cluster-Based Stochastic Channel Modeling
			16.1.2 Ray-Based Stochastic Channel Modeling
		16.2 Work Flow of Deriving Stochastic Channel Modeling
		References
Part IV Antenna Concepts and Realization
	17 High-Gain Antennas
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Nonplanar Antennas
		17.3 Planar Antennas
		References
	18 Antenna Arrays for Beamforming
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Dielectric Rod Waveguide Antennas
		18.3 Leaky-Wave Antenna
			18.3.1 Beam-Switching with a Patch Array
		18.4 Tapered Slot Antenna and Photonic TDD Beam-Steering
		References
	19 Algorithms for Multiple Antennas
		19.1 The Multiple Antenna Systems
			19.1.1 Phased Array
			19.1.2 Full MIMO Array
				19.1.2.1 Precoding
				19.1.2.2 Detection
			19.1.3 Hybrid MIMO Array
		19.2 Angle-of-Arrival Estimation and Signal Processing in Phased Arrays
			19.2.1 Static AoA Estimation
			19.2.2 Dynamic AoA Estimation
		19.3 Channel Estimation and Signal Processing in Massive MIMO
			19.3.1 MMSE Channel Estimation
			19.3.2 Massive MIMO Precoding and Detection
				19.3.2.1 Downlink Precoding
				19.3.2.2 Uplink Detection
				19.3.2.3 Simulation Results
		References
Part V Transceiver Technologies 1: Silicon-based Electronics
	20 SiGe HBTs
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 DC Characteristics
			20.2.1 Collector Current
			20.2.2 Current Gain
			20.2.3 Breakdown Voltages
		20.3 RF Characteristics
			20.3.1 Cutoff Frequency fT
			20.3.2 Maximum Oscillation Frequency fmax
			20.3.3 Noise Characteristics
		20.4 SiGe HBT Technology Examples
		20.5 SiGe HBT Circuit Examples
			20.5.1 Unit Block Circuit Examples
			20.5.2 Integrated System Examples
				20.5.2.1 Scalable and Wideband Radiator Arrays
				20.5.2.2 Wide-Angle Steering and Wideband Phased Arrays
		References
	21 Si-CMOS
		21.1 Integrated Circuit Technologies for Signal Generation and Radiation
			21.1.1 Harmonic Generation Mechanisms and Limits in Transistors
			21.1.2 Scalable and Wideband Radiator Arrays
		21.2 300GHz Band Communication Using Silicon Integrated Circuits
			21.2.1 Integrated Circuit for Terahertz Communication
			21.2.2 300GHz Band Transmitter Using Silicon Integrated Circuit
			21.2.3 300GHz Band Receiver Using Silicon Integrated Circuit
			21.2.4 One-Chip Transceiver
			21.2.5 Module for 300GHz Band Transceiver
		References
Part VI Transceiver Technologies 2: III-V based Electronics
	22 III-V HBT
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Functional THz Integrated Circuits
			22.2.1 Power Amplifiers
			22.2.2 Signal Sources
			22.2.3 Modulator and Demodulator SongQPSK
		22.3 THz Transceiver ICs
			22.3.1 Transmitter MMICs Tx
			22.3.2 Receiver MMICs SongRx
		22.4 Summary
		References
	23 III-V HEMT
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 HEMT Technology for THz Circuits
		23.3 Design Paradigms of III–V HEMT-Based THz Electronics
		23.4 III–V HEMT-Based Transmit-Receive Frontends for THz Communication
			23.4.1 ASK and Direct-Detection Receivers
			23.4.2 APSK and Coherent Receivers
				23.4.2.1 Double-Sideband Transmission and Heterodyne Detection
				23.4.2.2 Direct-Modulated Quadrature Channel Transmitters and Zero-IF Quadrature Receivers
				23.4.2.3 Super-Heterodyne Architectures
		23.5 Conclusion and Outlook
		References
	24 Resonant Tunneling Diode
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Device Structure
		24.3 Toward High-Frequency and High-Power Operation
		24.4 Spectral and Polarization Characteristics
		24.5 Applications to Wireless Communication and Radar System
		24.6 Conclusion
		References
	25 Plasma-Wave Devices
		25.1 Massive 2D Plasmonic Devices
		25.2 Massless 2D Plasmonic Devices
		References
Part VII Transceiver Technologies 3: Photonics
	26 Photonics-Based Transmitters and Receivers
		26.1 Research Trend
		26.2 System Configurations
		26.3 O–E Converters
		26.4 Integration Technologies
		26.5 Experimental Systems Using Photonic Transmitters
		26.6 Photonics-Based Receivers
		References
Part VIII Transceiver Technologies 4: Vacuum Electronic Devices
	27 Vacuum Electronic Devices
		27.1 Introduction
			27.1.1 How a TWT Works
			27.1.2 Why TWTs Generate More Power Than Solid-State Amplifiers
			27.1.3 State of the Art
		27.2 Fabrication Technology for Sub-terahertz TWTs
		27.3 Sub-terahertz TWTs for Wireless Communications
			27.3.1 Main TWT Parameters for High-Capacity and Long-Range Wireless Links
				27.3.1.1 Linearity and Intermodulation
				27.3.1.2 Noise Figure
				27.3.1.3 Efficiency
				27.3.1.4 Size and Deployment
		27.4 Conclusions
		References
Part IX Baseband Processing and Networking Interface
	28 High-Bandwidth, Analogue-to-Digital Conversion for THz Communication Systems
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 Sampling Basics
		28.3 Sinc-Shaped Nyquist Pulses
		28.4 Photonic Sampling with Sinc-Shaped Nyquist Pulses
		References
	29 Modulation Formats
		29.1 Overview of Digital Modulation
			29.1.1 RF Channel
			29.1.2 Scalar and Vector Modulation
			29.1.3 Constellation Diagram and Data Coding
			29.1.4 Error Vector Magnitude
		29.2 Scalar-Modulated THz Systems
		29.3 Vector Modulation THz Systems
			29.3.1 Modulation Comparison for Existing Published Systems
		29.4 Choosing a Modulation Scheme
			29.4.1 Noise in Measured Systems
			29.4.2 Alternatives and Choices
			29.4.3 Multicarrier
			29.4.4 Summary of Key Points
		Glossary
		References
	30 Forward Error Correction: A Bottleneck for THz Systems
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 FEC Performance Requirements for Ultrahigh Throughput THz Systems
		30.3 FEC Candidates for Ultrahigh Throughput THz Systems
		30.4 High-Throughput Decoders
			30.4.1 Turbo Decoder
			30.4.2 LDPC Decoder
			30.4.3 Polar Decoder
		30.5 Conclusion
		References
	31 MAC and Networking
		31.1 MAC Layer Functionalities
			31.1.1 Initial Access
				31.1.1.1 System Model
				31.1.1.2 Performance Analysis
				31.1.1.3 Numerical Results
			31.1.2 Channel Access Mechanisms
				31.1.2.1 Random Access
				31.1.2.2 Directional ALOHA
				31.1.2.3 Scheduled Access
		31.2 THz Networking
			31.2.1 An Overview of THz Network Layer Protocols
				31.2.1.1 Relaying and Forwarding
				31.2.1.2 Routing
		31.3 Conclusions, Open Issues, and Challenges
		References
Part X Demonstrators and Experiments
	32 Real100G.RF
		32.1 SISO Wireless Links at Near-THz Frequencies
		32.2 MIMO Wireless Link at Near-THz Frequencies
		References
	33 TERAPAN: A 300 GHz Fixed Wireless Link Based on InGaAs Transmit-Receive MMICs
		33.1 Motivation
		33.2 Project and Demonstrator Description
		References
	34 ThoR
		References
	35 Terranova
		35.1 Beyond 5G Heterogeneous Network Architectures
		35.2 Coherent THz Wireless Fiber Extenders
		References
	36 ULTRAWAVE
		References
	37 MILLILINK
		References
	38 TERAPOD
		38.1 Introduction
		38.2 Objectives
		38.3 Technical Innovations
			38.3.1 Demonstration of Reliable, Highly Efficient and High-Power THz RTD Sources
			38.3.2 Demonstration of Power Combination of Multiple THz Sources
			38.3.3 Demonstration of an Integrated THz Optical Wireless Bridge in a Data Centre Environment
		References
	39 iBROW
		39.1 Introduction
		39.2 e-RTDs for Wireless Data Transmissions
		39.3 RTD-PD for Wireless Data Transmissions
		39.4 Conclusion
		References
	40 120-GHz-Band Project
		40.1 Introduction
		40.2 120-GHz-Band Wireless Link Using Photonic Technology
		40.3 120-GHz-Band Wireless Link Using Electronic Technology
		40.4 Field Trials of 120-GHz-Band Wireless Link
		References
	41 300-GHz-Band InP IC Project
		41.1 300-GHz 20-Gb/s Kiosk Downloader
		41.2 300 GHz >100 Gb/s Wireless Transceiver for Beyond 5G
		References
	42 300-GHz-Band Si-CMOS Project
		References
	43 Fully Electronic Generation and Detection of THz Picosecond Pulses and their Applications
		43.1 Silicon-Based THz Pulse Radiation
		43.2 Silicon-Based Frequency Comb Detection
		References
	44 RTD Transceiver Project
		44.1 Wireless Transmission
		44.2 Photonic-Crystal-Based Transmission
		44.3 Coherent Detection
		44.4 Baseband Radio-over-Fiber with Tx-Rx RTD Demonstrator
		44.5 Direct THz Communication with Wireless and Fiber Links
		44.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	45 Photonics-Aided 300-500 GHz Wireless CommunicationsBeyond 100 Gbps
		45.1 Introduction
		45.2 Photonics-Aided THz Wireless Demonstrations at DTU and ZJU
			45.2.1 260 Gbps Photonic-Wireless Transmission in the THz Band
			45.2.2 106 Gbps Single-Channel Bit Rate at 400 GHz
			45.2.3 26.8 M 350 GHz Wireless Transmission of Beyond 100 Gbps
		References
	46 Ultra-Broadband Networking Systems Testbed at Northeastern University
		46.1 Platform Specifications
			46.1.1 Terahertz Front-Ends
			46.1.2 Signal Processing Engines
		46.2 Experimental Results
		46.3 Conclusion
		References
	47 Photonics-Based Projects at IEMN
		47.1 Passive THz Hot Spots Based on Bias-Free UTC-PD Coupled to Broadband Antenna
		47.2 100 Gbit/s Links Using High-Efficiency UTC-PDs
		References
	48 Wireless THz Transmission Using a Kramers-Kronig Receiver
		48.1 Introduction
		48.2 The Kramers-Kronig Receiver
		48.3 Generalized Kramers-Kronig Processing
		References
	49 50 Gbps Demonstration with 300-GHz-Band Photonics-Based Link at ETRI
		References
	50 Brown University Test Bed
		50.1 THz Link Test Bed
		50.2 Specular Non-line-of-Sight Links
		References
	51 Research at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT)/Nokia Bell Labs
		51.1 Laboratory-Emulated Weather
		51.2 Channel Performance by Weather Impact
			51.2.1 Co-propagating THz and Free-Space Infrared Link Test Bed
			51.2.2 Fog
			51.2.3 Dust
			51.2.4 Rain
			51.2.5 Air Turbulence and Scintillations
		References
Part XI Standardisation and Regulation
	52 Standards for THz Communications
		52.1 Introduction
		52.2 Applications and Usage Scenarios
			52.2.1 Kiosk Downloading
			52.2.2 Intra-device Communication
			52.2.3 Wireless Links in Data Centers
			52.2.4 Wireless Backhauling and Fronthauling
			52.2.5 Impact of the Applications of MAC Requirements
		52.3 MAC Layer
		52.4 PHY Layer
			52.4.1 Channels
			52.4.2 Frame Structure
			52.4.3 Modulation and Coding
		52.5 Performance Evaluation
			52.5.1 Data Rate
			52.5.2 Communication Range
		References
	53 Spectrum for THz Communications
		53.1 Introduction
		53.2 Structure of International and National Spectrum Policies
		53.3 Sharing Studies with Passive Service in 275–450 GHz
			53.3.1 Sharing Studies in Preparation of WRC 2019
			53.3.2 Alternative Approach for Future Studies
		53.4 Radio Regulations After WRC 2019
		References
	54 Outlook on Standardization and Regulation
		References