Threatened island nations: legal implications of rising seas and a changing climate

Contents......Page 7
Contributors......Page 11
Preface and Acknowledgments......Page 19
Part I Introduction......Page 23
1. Introduction......Page 25
2. Scientific Summary and Impacts......Page 26
3. Migration......Page 27
4. Sovereignty and Territory......Page 28
5. Protections and Solutions......Page 30
6. Accountability and Responsibility......Page 33
7. Wrap-Up......Page 35
2. How Is Sea Level Defined, What Affects It, and How Is It Measured?......Page 37
3. Changing Sea Level......Page 41
4. Regional Variability in Sea Level......Page 47
5. Projections of Future Sea level Rise......Page 53
6. Additional Climate Change Projections......Page 60
7. Vulnerability and Resilience of Small Island States......Page 62
8.1. Temperature......Page 63
8.2. Sea Level Rise......Page 64
8.4. Sea Surface Temperature and Ocean Acidification......Page 66
9. Interactions between Climate Change and Local Human Activities......Page 68
9.2. Infrastructure and Construction......Page 69
9.3. Water Use and Contamination......Page 70
9.4. Coastal Ecosystems......Page 71
9.5. Agriculture and Food Security......Page 72
9.6. Financial, Economic, and Institutional Capacity......Page 73
10. Conclusions......Page 75
Part II Sovereignty and Territorial Concerns......Page 77
1. Introduction......Page 79
2.1. Defined Territory......Page 82
2.2. Population......Page 85
2.3. Government......Page 88
2.4. Independence......Page 92
3.1. Statehood and Legality......Page 94
3.2. Fundamental Norms Implicated in the Disappearance of Small Island States......Page 98
3.3. Serious Breach of a Peremptory Norm of General International Law?......Page 101
4. Concluding Remarks......Page 108
1. Introduction......Page 111
2.1. The Challenges of Sovereignty and Statelessness......Page 115
2.2. Alternative Forms of the State as Precedent......Page 118
2.3.1. Diaspora and Cosmopolitanism......Page 121
2.3.2. Roots, Routes, and the Social Network......Page 124
2.4. Appropriate Interpretation of International Law and Extraordinary Circumstances Militate in Favor of the Deterritorialized State......Page 127
3. The Nation Ex-Situ: Political Trusteeship and the “Postclimate” State......Page 129
3.1. The Trusteeship Arrangement for Deterritorialized States......Page 130
3.2. The Legitimate Postclimate State and Citizenship and Nationality for the Postclimate Diaspora......Page 136
3.3. The Republic of the Marshall Islands Ex-Situ (RMIes)......Page 139
4. Conclusion: Navigating the Postclimate Era......Page 142
1. Introduction......Page 145
2. The Law of the Sea......Page 146
3. What Happens to a States Continental Shelf and EEZ When Tides Rise under Current Law?......Page 150
4. Why Does it Matter?......Page 153
5. Enforcement Measures......Page 156
6. Conclusion......Page 161
1. Introduction......Page 163
2. Sea Level Rise: Complexities and Uncertainties......Page 164
3.1. Threats to Land......Page 165
3.2. Threats to Maritime Jurisdiction......Page 166
3.3. Implications for Islands......Page 167
3.4. Total Inundation of States......Page 170
4.1. Planned Retreat and Relocation......Page 172
4.2. Protecting the Coast......Page 173
4.3. Using Basepoints......Page 179
4.4. Islands......Page 182
4.5. Fixing Baselines or Declaring Maritime Limits Directly......Page 184
5. Conclusions......Page 185
1. Introduction......Page 189
2.1. International Law and Maritime Zones......Page 192
2.2. The Baseline Dilemma......Page 195
3.1. The Statehood Dilemma......Page 198
3.2. Resolving the Statehood Dilemma......Page 200
4. Resolving the Baseline Dilemma and Preserving the Indicia of Statehood......Page 202
4.1. Actions in Accordance with Existing Law......Page 203
4.2. Developing New Law......Page 209
5. Conclusion......Page 213
Part III Resettlement Protections and Proposed Solutions......Page 215
1. Introduction......Page 217
2. What Makes Climate Change a Human Rights Issue?......Page 220
3.1. Value Added from Human Rights Law......Page 226
3.2. International Human Rights Law Obligations......Page 229
3.2.1. The Obligation to Respect......Page 231
3.2.2. The Obligation to Protect......Page 239
3.2.3. The Obligation to Fulfill......Page 243
4. Constraints on Climate-Specific Application of Human Rights Obligations......Page 250
5. Opportunities for Mutual Reinforcement and Policy Relevance......Page 255
6. Conclusion......Page 262
Introduction......Page 265
1. The Relationship among Climate Change, Environmental Degradation, and Migration......Page 269
1.1. Relevance of International Refugee Law......Page 275
1.2. Amending the Refugee Convention?......Page 279
1.3. Protection and Assistance Desired......Page 281
1.4. Other Migration-Related Laws and Institutions and How They Can Help......Page 282
1.5. Persons Displaced Internally within Their Own Countries......Page 285
1.5.1. Application and Impact of the Guiding Principles......Page 289
1.6. A New Legal Instrument?......Page 293
1.7. Statelessness......Page 297
1.8. National-Level Responses......Page 298
1.9. Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration......Page 300
2.1. Significance of Paragraph 14(f)......Page 301
2.2. Research Role in Bringing Migration and Displacement to the UNFCCC......Page 303
2.3. The Role of the Humanitarian Community and Advocacy......Page 306
2.4. From Bali to Poznan: Establishing the Topic, Supporting the Delegates with Research Findings......Page 308
2.5. Structure of Paragraph 14(f) and Possible Actions......Page 310
2.6. Gaps: Need for Longer-Term Thinking about Human Mobility and Climate Change......Page 312
2.7. Core Principles......Page 314
2.8. “Sinking Islands” and the Potential Relocation of Entire Communities......Page 317
88 Future Discussions of Human Mobility in the Context of Climate Change88......Page 318
1. Introduction......Page 321
2.1. Scale and Nature of the Problem......Page 323
2.2. Inadequate Assistance and Protection Provisions in Refugee Law......Page 325
2.3.1. Limitations as a Framework......Page 327
2.3.2. Focus Only on International/Cross-Border Displacement......Page 328
2.4. Existing Proposals to Address the Displacement Problem Are Not Complete or Comprehensive......Page 329
2.5. No “Coherent Multilateral Governance Framework” Exists......Page 330
3.1. Introduction: Scope of Convention......Page 331
3.2. Convention Provisions......Page 332
3.3. Causation......Page 334
3.4. Definition and Designation of CCDPs......Page 336
3.5.1. Organization......Page 337
3.5.2. States Parties: Offers of and Requests for Assistance, and Designations......Page 338
3.5.3. Regional Committees......Page 339
3.5.4. Financing......Page 340
3.6.1. Introduction......Page 341
3.6.2. Internal Displacement......Page 343
3.6.3. International Displacement......Page 345
3.7.1. Proximity......Page 347
3.7.2 Self-Determination......Page 348
3.7.3. Preservation of Intangible Culture......Page 349
4. Is “Advocacy for a New Treaty” Misplaced?......Page 350
4.1. Empirical Evidence on Movement......Page 351
4.2. Climate Change as a Cause of Movement......Page 352
4.3. Political Obstacles to a New Treaty......Page 353
5. A “Regime Complex” or “Building Blocks” Approach......Page 355
6. A Treaty for Climate-Change-Displaced Persons?......Page 356
1. Introduction......Page 359
2. The Existing Outmigration......Page 361
3. The Mechanisms......Page 366
3.1. Analytical Framework......Page 367
3.2. Analysis......Page 372
4. The Case for Prioritizing Bilateral Responses......Page 380
5. Conclusion......Page 389
1. Introduction......Page 391
1.2. Qualifications......Page 392
2.1. International Law Obligations for Adequate Housing......Page 394
2.2. Adequate Housing as a Human Right......Page 396
2.3. Obligations arising from Adequate Housing as a Human Right......Page 398
2.4. Implementing the Right to Adequate Housing in Domestic Law......Page 400
2.5. Assessing Economic, Social, and Cultural Dimensions of Adequate Housing......Page 401
2.6. The Relevance of Cultural Cohesion in Determining Adequate Housing......Page 403
2.7. The Effect of Urban Policies on Resettlement......Page 406
3.1. Land Use Planning and the New Urbanism......Page 408
3.2. Social Welfare Goals in Planning......Page 411
3.3. Appropriate Form of Land Use Regulation for CCDPs......Page 413
3.4. Incorporating CCDPs Aspirations in Zoning Ordinances......Page 415
3.5. Incorporating Cultural Matters in the Zoning Ordinance......Page 417
3.6. Location of CCDPs......Page 420
3.7. Financing and Its Consequences......Page 422
3.8. The Basic Form and Substance of a Model CCDP Ordinance......Page 425
4. Conclusion......Page 427
Part IV Establishing Accountability......Page 429
1. Introduction......Page 431
2. The Substantive Law on the Limitation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 436
2.1. Primary Obligations: The Duty to Prevent Harmful Levels of Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 437
2.2. Secondary Obligations: State Responsibility for an Internationally Wrongful Act......Page 445
3.1. Case 1......Page 450
3.2. Case 2......Page 452
1. Introduction......Page 455
2. Adaptation - Impacts and Vulnerability......Page 457
3.1. No-Harm Principle......Page 460
3.2. Application to Climate Change Impacts......Page 463
3.3. Practical Limitations......Page 464
4.1.1.  C (a) AOSIS 1 - Early 1990s......Page 466
4.1.2. AOSIS 2 - Vienna Dialogue......Page 469
4.1.3. Bali Action Plan......Page 470
4.1.4. Copenhagen/Cancun/Durban......Page 473
4.2.1. Proposed Compensation Fund Model from WWF......Page 477
4.2.2. Business and Insurance Industry Contributions......Page 478
5.1. Traditional Insurance......Page 480
5.2. Micro-Insurance......Page 481
5.3. Insurance-Linked Securities......Page 482
6. Non-Insurance Financing Mechanisms......Page 483
6.2. Micro-Savings and Postcalamity Credit......Page 484
6.3. Postdisaster Assistance......Page 485
7. Funding for Loss and Damage......Page 486
8. Need for In-Kind Support......Page 490
9. Conclusions - Optimal Design of a Loss and Damage Mechanism......Page 492
1. Introduction......Page 495
2. The Science and Risks of Ocean Acidification......Page 498
3. The Rationale for an International Legal Action Addressing Ocean Acidification......Page 502
4.1. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change......Page 506
4.2. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)......Page 509
4.3. The IMO London Convention and MARPOL......Page 510
4.4. Customary International Law......Page 511
5. The LOSC and the Duty to Prevent Ocean Acidification......Page 512
5.1.1. General Obligations......Page 514
5.1.2. Obligations of Specific Conduct......Page 516
5.1.3. LOSC Obligations Are Relevant to Ocean Acidification......Page 517
6.1. The Potential Parties......Page 518
6.2. LOSC Dispute Settlement Procedures......Page 520
6.2.1. ITLOS and the Annex VII Arbitral Tribunal......Page 521
6.2.2. Joinder of Parties......Page 523
6.2.3. The Potential Effects of Other Treaty Dispute Settlement Provisions on Jurisdiction under the LOSC......Page 524
6.3.1. The Nature of the Duty Established by Articles 192 and 194: Due Diligence or More?......Page 527
6.3.2. The Threshold of Harm......Page 530
6.4. Establishing the Breach of International Obligation......Page 532
6.4.1. A State Is Responsible for Its Breach Even if the Injury Would Not Have Occurred but for Other Contributory Causes......Page 534
6.4.3. Claims Limited to Article 194(1) and the Specific Obligations of Conduct May Simplify the Causation Inquiry......Page 537
6.5.1. Available Remedies Depend on the Nature of the Wrongful Act......Page 538
6.5.2 When the Proportion of Harm Attributable to Each State Can Be Determined, Payment of Proportional Damages Is Appropriate......Page 542
6.5.3 Compensation Due Depends on the Character of the Breach......Page 543
7. The Advisory Opinion Option......Page 545
7.1. Availability and Legality......Page 546
7.2.1. An “International Agreement” and the Purposes of the LOSC......Page 547
7.3. The Legal Question(s)......Page 548
7.4. An ITLOS Advisory Opinion: Disadvantages and Advantages......Page 549
8. Conclusion......Page 550
1. Introduction......Page 553
2.1. The Trust Principle......Page 555
2.2. Modern Application of the Public Trust Doctrine......Page 562
2.2.1. Domestic Assertions of the Trust in Nations Worldwide......Page 565
2.2.2. International Manifestation of Trust Interests......Page 569
3. Atmospheric Trust Litigation for Drowning Islands......Page 574
3.1. Atmospheric Trust Litigation as a Global Strategy for Climate Redress......Page 579
3.2. The United States Alien Tort Claims Act as a Jurisdictional Statute for Drowning Islands......Page 583
3.2.1. ATCA Jurisdiction for an ATL Drowning Islands Claim......Page 586
3.2.2. Private Utilities as State Actors for the Purposes of ATCA Jurisdiction......Page 591
3.2.3. The Viability of an ATCA Claim after American Electric Corp. (AEP) v. Connecticut......Page 595
4. World Heritage Sites as Global Trust Assets......Page 602
4.1. World Heritage Convention......Page 603
4.2. A Co-Tenant Trustee Framework of Protection for Global Heritage......Page 605
4.3. Enforcing Co-Tenant Obligations Not to Waste the Common Assets through Atmospheric Pollution......Page 607
5. Conclusion......Page 609
1. Introduction......Page 611
2.1. No-Harm Principle......Page 613
2.2. Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment21......Page 615
2.2.1. International Law......Page 616
2.2.2. ICJ Pulp Mills Judgment......Page 621
2.2.2.2. Obligation to Employ Best Available Techniques.......Page 624
2.3. Domestic Environmental Assessment Laws......Page 625
3.1. Participation of the FSM in the Transboundary EIA under Czech Law......Page 626
3.2. Development of the Case......Page 627
3.3. Assessment of the Climate Impacts of the Plan......Page 631
4. Transboundary EIAs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 633
4.1. Can Non-Neighboring Countries Trigger a TEIA Process?......Page 634
4.2. Do GHG Emissions Have a Transboundary Effect?......Page 635
4.3.1. Likelihood......Page 637
4.3.2. Significant Impact......Page 639
5. Practical Challenges and Opportunities for Island Nations in Conducting TEIA......Page 641
5.1. No Clear and Defined Standards......Page 642
5.2. Circularity of the Obligation to Conduct a TEIA......Page 643
5.3. Vague Notification and Consultation Procedures......Page 644
5.4. Implications on State Sovereignty......Page 645
6. Conclusion......Page 647
Index......Page 649