Thinking for Yourself

Cover......Page 1
Title......Page 2
Statement......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Brief Contents......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 17
Learning How You Think......Page 23
Learning from Sharing How We Think......Page 25
What Is Critical Thinking?......Page 26
What Are The Standards of Critical Thinking?......Page 28
Relationship to Creative Thinking......Page 29
The Habits of a Critical Thinker......Page 31
Part I: Basics of Critical Thinking......Page 33
Ch 1: Introduction......Page 34
Using Observation Skills to Develop New Knowledge......Page 39
Evaluating Your Work by Using the Scoring Boxes......Page 48
The Observation Process: Sensing, Perceiving, Thinking......Page 53
Barriers to Observation......Page 55
How Discomfort Leads Us to Think......Page 56
The Rewards of Skilled Observation......Page 57
Ch 1: Composition Writing Application......Page 61
Ch 1: Chapter Summary......Page 68
Ch 1: Chapter Quiz......Page 69
Ch 2: Introduction......Page 70
On Finding the Right Word......Page 71
How Well Do You Use Your Print or Online Dictionary?......Page 75
Clear Thinking Depends on Clear Word Definitions......Page 76
What Makes a Definition?......Page 77
Kinds of Definitions......Page 79
The Denotation and Connotations of Words......Page 80
The Importance of Defining Key Ideas......Page 81
Word Concepts......Page 82
Words that Hide Meaning: Vague, Ambiguous, and Abstract Words; Jargon, Euphemisms, and Buzzwords......Page 85
What Is Critical Reading?......Page 88
Ch 2: Composition Writing Application......Page 91
Ch 2: Chapter Summary......Page 96
Ch 2: Chapter Quiz......Page 97
Ch 2: Advanced Optional Writing Assignment......Page 98
Ch 3: Introduction......Page 99
Facts and Reality......Page 102
Facts Are Not Absolutes......Page 105
Feelings Can Be Facts......Page 106
Facts and Social Pressure......Page 108
Facts and Our Limited Senses......Page 110
Statements of Fact......Page 111
Standards We Use to Determine Facts: Verifiability, Reliability, Probability, Plausibility, Accuracy, and Currency......Page 115
Ch 3: Composition Writing Application......Page 117
Ch 3: Chapter Summary......Page 127
Ch 3: Advanced Optional Writing Assignment......Page 128
Ch 4: Introduction......Page 129
Understanding the Words Infer and Inference......Page 131
Distinguishing Inferences from Facts......Page 134
How Inferences Can Go Right and Wrong......Page 137
Drawing Inferences from Careful Observation......Page 140
Generalizations Are Inferences......Page 146
Ch 4: Composition Writing Application......Page 148
Ch 4: Chapter Summary......Page 156
Ch 4: Chapter Quiz......Page 157
Part II: Problems of Critical Thinking......Page 159
Ch 5: Introduction......Page 160
Understanding Assumptions......Page 163
Types of Assumptions......Page 164
Identifying Hidden Assumptions in Reasoning......Page 167
Hidden Assumptions in Arguments......Page 168
Value or Belief Assumptions......Page 171
Assumption Layers in Arguments......Page 172
Assumptions, Incongruities, and Thinking......Page 174
Ch 5: Composition Writing Application......Page 175
Ch 5: Chapter Summary......Page 188
Ch 5: Chapter Quiz......Page 189
Ch 5: Advanced Optional Writing Assignment......Page 190
Ch 6: Introduction......Page 191
Types of Opinions......Page 194
Standards for Evaluating Opinions......Page 195
The Intermingling of Facts and Opinions......Page 197
Public Opinion......Page 198
Looking at Public Opinion Polls......Page 199
From Opinions to Arguments......Page 201
Ch 6: Composition Writing Application......Page 203
Ch 6: Chapter Quiz......Page 214
Ch 6: Advanced Optional Writing Assignment......Page 215
Ch 7: Introduction......Page 216
How the Study of Viewpoints Relates to Critical Reading......Page 219
Viewpoints in Literature......Page 222
On Unconscious Viewpoints......Page 223
Recognizing Viewpoints: Left and Right......Page 227
Ch 7: Composition Writing Application......Page 230
Hidden Viewpoints: The Use of News Framing......Page 232
Hidden Viewpoints: Propaganda and Vested Interests......Page 234
Ch 7: Chapter Summary......Page 241
Ch 7: Chapter Quiz......Page 242
Part III: Forms and Standards of Critical Thinking......Page 245
Ch 8: Introduction......Page 246
What Viewpoint Is the Source of This Argument?......Page 249
What Is the Issue of Controversy?......Page 250
Is It an Argument or a Report?......Page 252
How Is the Argument Structured in Terms of Reasons and Conclusions?......Page 255
More on Distinguishing Reasons from Conclusions......Page 260
Is Any Important Information Missing?......Page 263
Following Up on Missing Information......Page 264
Is Any Information False, Contradictory, or Irreconcilable?......Page 267
Ch 8: Chapter Summary......Page 273
Ch 8: Chapter Quiz......Page 274
Ch 9: Introduction......Page 277
The Fallacies......Page 278
Fallacies That Manipulate Emotions......Page 279
Appeal to False Authority......Page 281
Fallacies That Manipulate Through Distraction......Page 289
Ch 9: Chapter Summary......Page 298
Ch 9: Chapter Quiz......Page 299
Ch 10: Introduction......Page 302
Looking at Inductive Reasoning......Page 303
Reasoning from Sensory Observation......Page 305
Reasoning from Enumeration......Page 306
Analogical Reasoning......Page 307
Discovering Patterns......Page 308
Reasoning to Determine Cause......Page 309
Reasoning with Hypotheses......Page 313
Reasoning Through Statistics and Probability......Page 316
Ch 10: Composition Writing Application......Page 318
Ch 10: Chapter Summary......Page 325
Ch 10: Chapter Quiz......Page 326
Ch 10: Advanced Optional Writing Assignment......Page 327
Ch 11: Introduction......Page 328
The Hasty Generalization......Page 330
The False Dilemma......Page 332
The Questionable Statistic......Page 334
Contradictions......Page 336
The Loaded Question......Page 338
The Weak Analogy......Page 340
Questionable Cause......Page 342
The Slippery Slope......Page 344
Ch 11: Chapter Quiz......Page 346
Ch 11: Advanced Optional Short Research Assignment......Page 348
Ch 12: Introduction......Page 349
About Deductive Reasoning......Page 352
The Basic Vocabulary of Logic......Page 353
Standardized Forms in Syllogisms......Page 358
What Syllogisms Do......Page 360
The Interplay of Inductive and Deductive Reasoning......Page 364
Ch 12: Composition Writing Application......Page 366
Ch 12: Chapter Summary......Page 371
Ch 12: Chapter Quiz......Page 373
Appendix: The Research Paper......Page 375
Index......Page 390