Thermodynamics ; Fundamental Principles and Applications (UNITEXT for Physics)

Preface
	Outline of This work
	Concluding Remark
Acknowledgements
Contents
Acronyms
	List of Some Useful Constants
Part I Formulation of the Theory
1 Macroscopic Systems and Empirical Temperature
	1.1 Macroscopic Systems
	1.2 Macroscopic Observer
	1.3 Thermodynamic State
	1.4 The Concept of Empirical Temperature
	1.5 The Perception of Hotness and Coldness
	1.6 The Empirical Temperature and the Zeroth Principle of Thermodynamics
		1.6.1 Equilibrium State
		1.6.2 The Zeroth Principle
2 The First Principle of Thermodynamics
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Closed Systems
	2.3 Adiabatic Walls and Adiabatic Transformations
	2.4 The Definition of Energy
		2.4.1 Energy of Familiar Adiabatic Systems
	2.5 Definition of Heat (Quantity of)
	2.6 Infinitesimal Transformations
	2.7 Formulation of the First Principle of Thermodynamics
3 The Second Principle  of Thermodynamics
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Natural and Unnatural Processes
	3.3 Quasi-static Processes
	3.4 Reversible Processes
	3.5 Formulation of the Second Principle: Definition  of S and T
		3.5.1 State Functions
		3.5.2 Extensive and Intensive Quantities
		3.5.3 Measuring S
		3.5.4 The Absolute, or Thermodynamic, Temperature T
	3.6 Discontinuous Systems Approximation
		3.6.1 Resume
	3.7 On the Predictive Power of Thermodynamics
	3.8 Efficiency of Thermal Engines
	3.9 Carnot Cycles
	3.10 On the Determination of the New Scale of Temperature T
	3.11 The Carnot Engine and Endoreversible Engines
	3.12 Coefficient of Performance (COP)
		3.12.1 Refrigerator
		3.12.2 Heat Pump
	3.13 Availability and Maximum Work
4 The Fundamental Relation and the Thermodynamic Potentials
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 The Equilibrium State Postulate for Closed Systems with No Chemical Reactions
		4.2.1 Simple Systems
	4.3 The Fundamental Relation
		4.3.1 The General Case for Open Systems with Variable Composition: The Chemical Potential
		4.3.2 Other Thermodynamic Potentials
		4.3.3 The Free Energy and Isothermal Processes in Closed Systems
		4.3.4 The Enthalpy and Isobaric Processes
		4.3.5 The Gibbs Potential and Isothermal and Isobaric Processes
		4.3.6 The Stability Problem in a Thermodynamical System
		4.3.7 Adiabatic Systems
		4.3.8 Systems at Constant Temperature
		4.3.9 Systems at Constant Entropy
		4.3.10 The Isothermal Compressibility
		4.3.11 The Dependence of Entropy on Temperature
		4.3.12 Other Consequences from the Stability Conditions
5 Maxwell Relations
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Some Properties of Materials
	5.3 The Volume and Pressure Dependance of Entropy
	5.4 The Heat Capacities and the Temperature Dependance of Entropy
		5.4.1 The Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure
		5.4.2 The Heat Capacity at Constant Volume
		5.4.3 The Relation Between Cp and CV
		5.4.4 The Adiabatic Compressibility Coefficient
		5.4.5 The Equations of the Adiabatic Transformations
	5.5 Concluding Remarks and the Role of Cp, α, χT
		5.5.1 Isothermal Processes
		5.5.2 Free Expansion
		5.5.3 Pressure Drop in Free Expansion
		5.5.4 Temperature–Pressure Variations in Adiabatic Transformations
		5.5.5 Temperature–Volume Variations in Adiabatic Transformations
Part II Applications
6 General Properties of Gaseous Systems
	6.1 Isothermal Behavior of Gases
	6.2 The First Virial Coefficient for Gases
		6.2.1 The Joule–Thomson Experiment
		6.2.2 Some Thermodynamic Potentials for Gases
		6.2.3 Calorimetric Measurements for the Determination  of the First Virial Coefficient
	6.3 Definition of the Temperature Scale by Means of Gases
		6.3.1 Other Determinations of the Temperature Scale
	6.4 The Universal Constant of Gases
	6.5 The Joule–Thomson Coefficient
	6.6 The Inversion Curve
		6.6.1 Liquefaction of Gases and the Attainability of Low Temperatures
	6.7 A Simple Approximation of the Isothermal Behavior  of Gases
	6.8 The Chemical Potential in Diluted Gases
	6.9 Molar Heat at Constant Volume for Dilute Gases
		6.9.1 Microscopic Degrees of Freedom
		6.9.2 Energy Equipartition
		6.9.3 On the Temperature Dependence of Molar Heats
7 Phase Transitions
	7.1 Phases Equilibrium
	7.2 Latent Heat
		7.2.1 Liquid–Vapor Equilibrium
		7.2.2 Equilibrium Between Condensed Phases: Solid–Liquid
		7.2.3 Solid–Vapor Equilibrium
	7.3 Triple Point
	7.4 Phase Diagrams
		7.4.1 (p,V) Diagrams
		7.4.2 Molar Heat at Equilibrium
		7.4.3 Temperature Dependence of the Latent Heats
	7.5 Continuity of States
	7.6 Continuous-Phase Transitions
		7.6.1 Differences Between Continuous- and Discontinuous-Phase Transitions
	7.7 Exercises
8 van der Waals Equation
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 A Simple Modification to the Equation of State  for Ideal Gases
	8.3 Successes and Failures of the van der Waals Equation
		8.3.1 van der Waals Equation and the Boyle Temperature
		8.3.2 The Critical Point
		8.3.3 The Dependence of the Energy of a van der Waals Gas on Volume
		8.3.4 The Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for a van der Waals Gas
		8.3.5 The Molar Heats at Constant Volume and at Constant Pressure in a van der Waals Gas
		8.3.6 The Joule–Thomson Coefficient and the Inversion Curve for a van der Waals Gas
		8.3.7 Determination of Vapor Pressure from the van der Waals Equation
		8.3.8 Free Energy in a van der Waals Gas
	8.4 The Law of Corresponding States
		8.4.1 Corresponding States for the Second Virial Coefficient
		8.4.2 The Compressibility Factor and the Generalized Compressibility Chart
		8.4.3 Vapor Pressure and Latent Heat of Vaporization
		8.4.4 Triple Point and the Law of Corresponding States
		8.4.5 The Inversion Curve and the Law of Corresponding States
		8.4.6 The Law of Corresponding States and the van der Waals's Equation
	8.5 Power Laws at the Critical Point in a van der Waals Gas
	8.6 Exercises
9 Surface Systems
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Surface Tension
	9.3 Properties of Surface Layers
		9.3.1 Stability of Equilibrium States
	9.4 Interfaces at the Contact Between Two Phases  in Equilibrium
	9.5 Curvature Effect on Vapor Pressure: Kelvin's Relation
	9.6 Nucleation Processes and Metastability in Supersaturated Vapor
		9.6.1 Spinodal Decomposition
		9.6.2 Temperature Dependence
		9.6.3 Surface Tension and the Law of Corresponding States
		9.6.4 Interfaces at Contact Between Three Phases in Equilibrium
10 Electrostatic Field
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 The Response of Matter
	10.3 The Dielectric Constant
	10.4 Thermodynamic Potentials for Linear Dielectrics
		10.4.1 Thermodynamic Potentials for Linear Dielectrics Without Electrostriction
	10.5 Dielectric Constant for Ideal Gases
11 Magnetic Field
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Electric Work, Magnetic Work, and Radiation
	11.3 Constitutive Relations
		11.3.1 Uniform Medium
	11.4 Diamagnetic Materials
	11.5 Paramagnetic Materials
		11.5.1 Long, Rectilinear, and Homogeneous Solenoid
	11.6 Thermodynamic Potentials in the Presence of Magnetostatic Fields
		11.6.1 Expression of the Thermodynamic Potentials
		11.6.2 Linear Media
	11.7 Adiabatic Demagnetization
	11.8 Ferromagnetic Materials
12 Thermodynamics of Radiation
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Kirchhoff's Law
		12.2.1 Absorptivity of Material Bodies
		12.2.2 Emissivity of Material Bodies
		12.2.3 Black Body
		12.2.4 Kirchhoff's Law for the Emissivity of a Black Body
		12.2.5 One Fundamental Consequence of Kirchhoff's Law
		12.2.6 Extended Form of the Kirchhoff's Law
		12.2.7 Emittance
		12.2.8 Radiation Energy Density and Emissivity
	12.3 Wien's Law
		12.3.1 Wien's Law According to Wien
		12.3.2 Wien's Law and Relativity
		12.3.3 Some Consequences of the Wien's Law
	12.4 Thermodynamic Potentials for Radiation
	12.5 Thermodynamical Processes for Radiation
		12.5.1 Isothermal Processes
		12.5.2 Adiabatic Processes
		12.5.3 Isochoric Transformations (Constant Volume)
		12.5.4 Free Expansion
	12.6 Planck and the Problem of Black-Body Radiation
		12.6.1 The Situation at the End of the Nineteenth Century and the Black-Body Radiation
		12.6.2 Planck and the Problem of Matter–Radiation Interaction
		12.6.3 The Planck Solution (Through Thermodynamics)
		12.6.4 The Dawn of Quantum Physics
	12.7 Exercises
13 Third Law of Thermodynamics
	13.1 The Third Law of Thermodynamics
		13.1.1 Formulation According to Nernst and Planck
		13.1.2 Some Observational Consequences
Part III Irreversible Processes
14 Irreversible Processes: Fundamentals
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Rephrasing the First Principle
	14.2 Heat Exchange
	14.3 Chemical Reactions
		14.3.1 The Rate of Reaction
		14.3.2 Entropy Production and the Chemical Affinity
	14.4 Open Systems
	14.5 Electrochemical Reactions
	14.6 Generalized Fluxes and Forces
		14.6.1 Determination of Generalized Fluxes and Forces
	14.7 Onsager Relations
		14.7.1 The Curie Symmetry Principle
	14.8 The Approximation of Linearity
		14.8.1 Chemical Affinity
		14.8.2 Reaction Rate
		14.8.3 Linear Relations Between Rates and Affinities
		14.8.4 Relaxation Time for a Chemical Reaction
15 Irreversible Processes: Applications
	15.1 Introduction
		15.1.1 Thermomechanical Effects
		15.1.2 Knudsen Gases
		15.1.3 Electrokinetic Effects
	15.2 Stationary States
		15.2.1 Configurations of Minimal Entropy Production
		15.2.2 Determination of the Stationary State
		15.2.3 Stability of Stationary States and the Principles of Le Chatelier and of Le Chatelier–Braun
	15.3 Fluctuations
		15.3.1 Theory of Fluctuations in a Isolated System
		15.3.2 Fluctuations Distribution Function
		15.3.3 Mean Values and Correlations
		15.3.4 Onsager Relations and the Decay of Fluctuations in Isolated Systems
16 Thermodynamics of Continua
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Definition of System
	16.3 Mass Conservation
	16.4 Equation of Motion
	16.5 The Equation for Energy
	16.6 The Equation for Entropy
		16.6.1 Entropy Balance in Continuous Systems
		16.6.2 The Entropy Production
		16.6.3 Mechanical Equilibrium
		16.6.4 The Einstein Relation Between Mobility and Diffusion Coefficient
	16.7 Thermoelectric Phenomena
		16.7.1 Seebeck Effect—Thermoelectric Power
		16.7.2 Peltier Coefficient—Phenomenology
		16.7.3 Thomson Effect—Phenomenology
		16.7.4 Peltier Effect—Explanation
		16.7.5 Thomson Effect
		16.7.6 Galvanomagnetic and Thermomagnetic Effects
	16.8 Thermodiffusion Processes
		16.8.1 Binary Systems
		16.8.2 Thermodiffusion
		16.8.3 Dufour Effect
	16.9 Appendix—The Gibbs–Duhem Relation
Part IV Thermodynamics and Information
17 Introduction to the Role of Information in Physics
	17.1 The Maxwell's Paradox
	17.2 The Leo Szilard's Article in 1929
	17.3 The Observer Creates Information
	17.4 The Solution of Maxwell–Szilard Paradox
	17.5 Landauer Principle
	17.6 On the Separation Observer–Observed
		17.6.1 Information as a Physical Quantity Which Acquires  a Physical Reality
		17.6.2 New Perspectives: The Physical Entropy According to Zurek
Appendix A Math Tools
A.1  Relation 1
A.2  Relation 2
A.3  Euler Theorem for Homogeneous Functions
A.4  Schwarz's Theorem
A.5  Differentials, Infinitesimals, Finite Differences
A.5.1  Finite Differences
A.5.2  Finite Differences Small Compared to Characteristic Scales
A.5.3  Differentials and Infinitesimals
A.5.4  Mutual Exchanges Between Two Systems
Appendix B Pressure Exerted by a Particle Gas
B.1  Mechanical Interpretation of the Pressure Exerted by a Particle Gas
B.1.1  Particles Completely Absorbed by the Wall
B.1.2  Particles Elastically Reflected by the Wall
B.1.3  Nonrelativistic Case
B.1.4  The Case of Radiation
Appendix  Solutions to the Problems
Appendix  References
Index