Thermal Energy Storage Systems and Applications

Cover
	Title Page
	Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1 Basic Introductory Thermal Aspects
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Systems of Units
	1.3 Fundamental Properties and Quantities
		1.3.1 Mass, Time, Length, and Force
		1.3.2 Pressure
		1.3.3 Temperature
		1.3.4 Specific Volume and Density
		1.3.5 Mass and Volumetric Flow Rates
	1.4 General Aspects of Thermodynamics
		1.4.1 Thermodynamic Systems
		1.4.2 Process
		1.4.3 Cycle
		1.4.4 Thermodynamic Property
		1.4.5 Sensible and Latent Heats
		1.4.6 Latent Heat of Fusion
		1.4.7 Vapor
		1.4.8 Thermodynamic Tables
		1.4.9 State and Change of State
		1.4.10 Specific Internal Energy
		1.4.11 Specific Enthalpy
		1.4.12 Specific Entropy
		1.4.13 Pure Substance
		1.4.14 Ideal Gases
		1.4.15 Energy Transfer
		1.4.16 Heat
		1.4.17 Work
		1.4.18 The First Law of Thermodynamics
		1.4.19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
		1.4.20 Reversibility and Irreversibility
		1.4.21 Exergy
	1.5 General Aspects of Fluid Flow
		1.5.1 Classification of Fluid Flows
		1.5.2 Viscosity
		1.5.3 Equations of Flow
		1.5.4 Boundary Layer
	1.6 General Aspects of Heat Transfer
		1.6.1 Conduction Heat Transfer
		1.6.2 Convection Heat Transfer
		1.6.3 Radiation Heat Transfer
		1.6.4 Thermal Resistance
		1.6.5 The Composite Wall
		1.6.6 The Cylinder
		1.6.7 The Sphere
		1.6.8 Conduction with Heat Generation
		1.6.9 Natural Convection
		1.6.10 Forced Convection
	1.7 Concluding Remarks
	Nomenclature
	References
	Study Questions/Problems
Chapter 2 Energy Storage Systems
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Energy Demand
	2.3 Energy Storage Basics
	2.4 Energy Storage Methods
		2.4.1 Mechanical Energy Storage
		2.4.2 Chemical Energy Storage
		2.4.3 Electrochemical Energy Storage
		2.4.4 Biological Storage
		2.4.5 Magnetic Storage
		2.4.6 Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
	2.5 Hydrogen for Energy Storage
		2.5.1 Storage Characteristics of Hydrogen
		2.5.2 Hydrogen Storage Technologies
		2.5.3 Hydrogen Production
	2.6 Comparison of ES Technologies
	2.7 Energy Storage and Environmental Impact
		2.7.1 Energy and Environment
		2.7.2 Major Environmental Problems
	2.8 Environmental Impact and Energy Storage Systems and Applications
	2.9 Potential Solutions to Environmental Problems
		2.9.1 General Solutions
		2.9.2 TES-Related Solutions
	2.10 Sustainable Development
		2.10.1 Conceptual Issues
		2.10.2 The Brundtland Commission’s Definition
		2.10.3 Environmental Limits
		2.10.4 Global, Regional, and Local Sustainability
		2.10.5 Environmental, Social, and Economic Components of Sustainability
		2.10.6 Energy and Sustainable Development
		2.10.7 Environment and Sustainable Development
		2.10.8 Achieving Sustainable Development in Larger Countries
		2.10.9 Important Factors for Sustainable Development
		2.10.10 Sustainable Development Goals
	2.11 Concluding Remarks
	References
	Study Questions/Problems
Chapter 3 Thermal Energy Storage Methods
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Thermal Energy
	3.3 Thermal Energy Storage
		3.3.1 Basic Principle of TES
		3.3.2 Benefits of TES
		3.3.3 Criteria for TES Evaluation
		3.3.4 TES Market Considerations
		3.3.5 TES Heating and Cooling Applications
		3.3.6 TES Operating Characteristics
		3.3.7 ASHRAE TES Standards
	3.4 Solar Energy and TES
		3.4.1 TES Challenges for Solar Applications
		3.4.2 TES Types and Solar Energy Systems
		3.4.3 Storage Durations and Solar Applications
		3.4.4 Building Applications of TES and Solar Energy
		3.4.5 Design Considerations for Solar Energy-Based TES
	3.5 TES Methods
	3.6 Sensible TES
		3.6.1 Thermally-Stratified TES Tanks
		3.6.2 Concrete TES
		3.6.3 Rock and Water/Rock TES
		3.6.4 Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES)
		3.6.5 Solar Ponds
		3.6.6 Evacuated Solar Collector TES
	3.7 Latent TES
		3.7.1 Operational Aspects of Latent TES
		3.7.2 Phase Change Materials (PCMs)
	3.8 Cold TES (CTES)
		3.8.1 Working Principle
		3.8.2 Operational Loading of CTES
		3.8.3 Design Considerations
		3.8.4 CTES Sizing Strategies
		3.8.5 Load Control and Monitoring in CTES
		3.8.6 CTES Storage Media Selection and Characteristics
		3.8.7 Storage Tank Types for CTES
		3.8.8 Chilled-Water CTES
		3.8.9 Ice CTES
		3.8.10 Ice Forming
		3.8.11 Ice Thickness Controls
		3.8.12 Technical and Design Aspects of CTES
		3.8.13 Selection Aspects of CTES
		3.8.14 Cold Air Distribution in CTES
		3.8.15 Potential Benefits of CTES
		3.8.16 Electric Utilities and CTES
	3.9 Seasonal TES
		3.9.1 Seasonal TES for Heating Capacity
		3.9.2 Seasonal TES for Cooling Capacity
		3.9.3 Illustration
	3.10 Concluding Remarks
	References
	Study Questions/Problems
Chapter 4 Energy and Exergy Analyses
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Theory: Energy and Exergy Analyses
		4.2.1 Motivation for Energy and Exergy Analyses
		4.2.2 Conceptual Balance Equations for Mass, Energy, and Entropy
		4.2.3 Detailed Balance Equations for Mass, Energy, and Entropy
		4.2.4 Basic Quantities for Exergy Analysis
		4.2.5 Detailed Exergy Balance
		4.2.6 The Reference Environment
		4.2.7 Efficiencies
		4.2.8 Properties for Energy and Exergy Analyses
		4.2.9 Implications of Results of Exergy Analyses
		4.2.10 Steps for Energy and Exergy Analyses
	4.3 Thermodynamic Considerations in TES Evaluation
		4.3.1 Determining Important Analysis Quantities
		4.3.2 Obtaining Appropriate Measures of Efficiency
		4.3.3 Pinpointing Losses
		4.3.4 Assessing the Effects of Stratification
		4.3.5 Accounting for Time Duration of Storage
		4.3.6 Accounting for Variations in Reference-Environment Temperature
		4.3.7 Closure
	4.4 Exergy Evaluation of a Closed TES System
		4.4.1 Description of the Case Considered
		4.4.2 Analysis of the Overall Process
		4.4.3 Analysis of Subprocesses
		4.4.4 Alternative Formulations of Subprocess Efficiencies
		4.4.5 Relations Between Performance of Subprocesses and Overall Process
		4.4.6 Example
		4.4.7 Closure
	4.5 Appropriate Efficiency Measures for Closed TES Systems
		4.5.1 TES Model Considered
		4.5.2 Energy and Exergy Balances
		4.5.3 Energy and Exergy Efficiencies
		4.5.4 Overall Efficiencies
		4.5.5 Charging-Period Efficiencies
		4.5.6 Storing-Period Efficiencies
		4.5.7 Discharging-Period Efficiencies
		4.5.8 Summary of Efficiency Definitions
		4.5.9 Illustrative Example
		4.5.10 Closure
	4.6 Importance of Temperature in Performance Evaluations for Sensible TES Systems
		4.6.1 Energy, Entropy, and Exergy Balances for the TES System
		4.6.2 TES System Model Considered
		4.6.3 Analysis
		4.6.4 Comparison of Energy and Exergy Efficiencies
		4.6.5 Illustration
		4.6.6 Closure
	4.7 Exergy Analysis of Aquifer TES Systems
		4.7.1 ATES Model
		4.7.2 Energy and Exergy Analyses
		4.7.3 Effect of a Threshold Temperature
		4.7.4 Case Study
		4.7.5 Closure
	4.8 Exergy Analysis of Thermally Stratified Storages
		4.8.1 General Stratified TES Energy and Exergy Expressions
		4.8.2 Temperature-Distribution Models and Relevant Expressions
		4.8.3 Discussion and Comparison of Models
		4.8.4 Illustrative Example: The Exergy-Based Advantage of Stratification
		4.8.5 Illustrative Example: Evaluating Stratified TES Energy and Exergy
		4.8.6 Increasing TES Exergy Storage Capacity Using Stratification
		4.8.7 Illustrative Example: Increasing TES Exergy with Stratification
		4.8.8 Closure
	4.9 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Cold TES Systems
		4.9.1 Energy Balances
		4.9.2 Exergy Balances
		4.9.3 Energy and Exergy Efficiencies
		4.9.4 Illustrative Example
		4.9.5 Case Study: Thermodynamic Performance of a Commercial Ice TES System
		4.9.6 Case Study: Energy and Exergy Analyses of An Ice-on-Coil Thermal Energy Storage System
		4.9.7 Closure
	4.10 Exergy-Based Optimal Discharge Periods for Closed TES Systems
		4.10.1 Analysis Description and Assumptions
		4.10.2 Evaluation of Storage-Fluid Temperature During Discharge
		4.10.3 Discharge Efficiencies
		4.10.4 Exergy-Based Optimum Discharge Period
		4.10.5 Illustrative Example
		4.10.6 Closure
	4.11 Exergy Analysis of Solar Ponds
		4.11.1 Experimental Solar Pond
		4.11.2 Data Acquisition and Analysis
		4.11.3 Energy and Exergy Assessments
		4.11.4 Potential Improvements
	4.12 Concluding Remarks
	Nomenclature
	References
	Study Questions/Problems
	Appendix: Glossary of Selected Exergy-Related Terminology
Chapter 5 Numerical Modeling and Simulation
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Approaches and Methods
	5.3 Selected Applications
	5.4 Numerical Modeling, Simulation, and Analysis of Sensible TES Systems
		5.4.1 Modeling
		5.4.2 Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Analysis
		5.4.3 Simulation
		5.4.4 Thermodynamic Analysis
	5.5 Case Studies for Sensible TES Systems
		5.5.1 Case Study 1: Natural Convection in a Hot Water Storage Tank
		5.5.2 Case Study 2: Forced Convection in a Stratified Hot Water Tank
		5.5.3 General Discussion of Sensible TES Case Studies
	5.6 Numerical Modeling, Simulation, and Analysis of Latent TES Systems
		5.6.1 Modeling
		5.6.2 Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Analysis
		5.6.3 Simulation
		5.6.4 Thermodynamic Analysis
	5.7 Case Studies for Latent TES Systems
		5.7.1 Case Study 1: Two-Dimensional Study of the Melting Process in an Infinite Cylindrical Tube
		5.7.2 Case Study 2: Melting and Solidification of Paraffin in a Spherical Shell from Forced External Convection
	5.8 Illustrative Application for a Complex System: Numerical Assessment of Encapsulated Ice TES with Variable Heat Transfer Coefficients
		5.8.1 Background
		5.8.2 System Considered
		5.8.3 Modeling and Simulation
		5.8.4 Numerical Determination of Heat Transfer Coefficients for Spherical Capsules
		5.8.5 Heat Transfer Coefficients and Correlations
		5.8.6 Closing Remarks for Illustrative Application for a Complex System
	5.9 Thermal Performance Assessment of Geometrically Modified Ice Capsules During Discharging
		5.9.1 Ice Capsules Studied
		5.9.2 Numerical Modeling and Control Volume
		5.9.3 Methodology for Numerical Analysis
		5.9.4 Thermodynamic Analysis
		5.9.5 Results and Discussion
		5.9.6 Closing Comments on Case Study
	5.10 Concluding Remarks
	Nomenclature
	References
	Study Questions/Problems
Chapter 6 Thermal Management with Phase Change Materials
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Thermal Management
	6.3 Thermal Management Methods
		6.3.1 Fluid Flow
		6.3.2 External Components
		6.3.3 Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
	6.4 Case Studies
		6.4.1 Case Study 1
		6.4.2 Case Study 2
		6.4.3 Case Study 3
		6.4.4 Case Study 4
	6.5 Concluding Remarks
	Nomenclature
	References
	Study Questions/Problems
Chapter 7 Renewable Energy Systems with Thermal Energy Storage
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Renewable Energy Sources and Systems
		7.2.1 Solar Energy Systems
		7.2.2 Wind Energy Systems
		7.2.3 Biomass Energy Systems
		7.2.4 Geothermal Energy Systems
		7.2.5 Ocean Energy Systems
	7.3 Renewable Energy with Energy Storage
		7.3.1 Thermal Energy Storage
		7.3.2 Mechanical Energy Storage
		7.3.3 Electromagnetic Storage
		7.3.4 Chemical Storage
		7.3.5 Electrochemical Storage
	7.4 Case Study 1: Solar Energy System with Thermal Energy Storage
		7.4.1 System Description
		7.4.2 Thermodynamic Analysis
		7.4.3 Results and Discussion
	7.5 Case Study 2: Solar Energy-Based System with Compressed Air Energy Storage
		7.5.1 System Description
		7.5.2 Thermodynamic Analysis
		7.5.3 Results and Discussion
	7.6 Case Study 3: Combining Wind and Current Turbines with Pumped Hydro Storage
		7.6.1 System Description
		7.6.2 Thermodynamic Analysis
		7.6.3 Results and Discussion
	7.7 Concluding Remarks
	Nomenclature
	References
	Problems
Chapter 8 Case Studies
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Ice CTES Case Studies
		8.2.1 Rohm and Haas, Spring House Research Facility, Pennsylvania, USA
		8.2.2 A Cogeneration Facility, California, USA
		8.2.3 A Power Generation Plant, Gaseem, Saudi Arabia
		8.2.4 Channel Island Power Station, Darwin, Australia
		8.2.5 Abraj Atta’awuneya Ice CTES Project, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
		8.2.6 Alitalia’s Headquarters Building, Rome, Italy
		8.2.7 GIMSA Hypermarket Ice CTES System, Ankara, Turkey
	8.3 Ice-Slurry CTES Case Studies
		8.3.1 Stuart C. Siegel Center at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, USA
		8.3.2 Slurry-Ice Rapid Cooling System, Boston, UK
		8.3.3 Energy and Exergy Analyses of a Residential Cold Thermal Energy Storage System
	8.4 Chilled Water CTES Case Studies
		8.4.1 Central Chilled-Water System at University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA
		8.4.2 Chilled-Water CTES in a Trigeneration Project for the World Fair (EXPO’98), Lisbon, Portugal
		8.4.3 Chilled-Water CTES System in an Integrated System for Multigeneration
	8.5 PCM-Based CTES Case Studies
		8.5.1 Bangsar District Cooling Plant, Malaysia
		8.5.2 PCM CTES System at Bergen University College, Norway
	8.6 PCM-Based Latent TES for Heating Case Studies
		8.6.1 Solar Power Tower in Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, USA
		8.6.2 PCM-Filled Wall for Latent TES System in a Residential Application
	8.7 Sensible TES Case Studies
		8.7.1 New TES in Kumamuto, Kyushu
		8.7.2 Sensible Aquifer TES System for a Residential Application
	8.8 Other Case Studies
		8.8.1 Potential for TES in a Hotel in Bali
		8.8.2 Integrated TES Community System: Drake Landing Solar Community
		8.8.3 The Borehole TES System at University of Ontario Institute of Technology
	8.9 Concluding Remarks
	References
	Study Questions/Problems
Index
	EULA