Theory and practice of water and wastewater treatment

Theory and Practice of Water and Wastewater Treatment
Contents
Acknowledgments
Preface
Abbreviations and Acronyms Used in the Text
About the Companion Website
Section I: Chemistry
	Chapter 1: Basic Chemistry
		1.1 Definitions
		1.2 The Expression of Concentration
		1.3 Ions and Molecules in Water
			1.3.1 Oxidation Number
		1.4 Balancing Reactions
		1.5 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
		1.6 Equilibrium
		1.7 Conductivity and Ionic Strength
			1.7.1 Conductance
			1.7.2 Ionic Strength
		1.8 Chemical Kinetics
			1.8.1 Other Formulations
				Consecutive or Series
				Parallel
				Retardant
				Autocatalytic
				Catalysis
			1.8.2 The Effect of Temperature on Rate of Reaction
		1.9 Gas Laws
		1.10 Gas Solubility: Henry's Law
		1.11 Solubility Product
		1.12 Complexes
		1.13 Nuclear Chemistry
			1.13.1 Radioactivity Units
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 2: The Thermodynamic Basis for Equilibrium
		2.1 Thermodynamic Relations
			2.1.1 Free Energy
				Expression of Concentration in Equilibrium Expressions
			2.1.2 Enthalpy and Temperature Effects on the Equilibrium Constant
		2.2 Redox Potentials
			2.2.1 Cell or Couple Potential
			2.2.2 Oxidation-Reduction Potential and System Potential
		2.3 Corrosion
			2.3.1 Microbial Corrosion
			2.3.2 Corrosion Prevention from External Environmental Factors
				Galvanic Cathodic Protection
				Electrolytic (or Impressed Current) Cathodic Protection
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 3: Acid–Base Chemistry
		3.1 pH
		3.2 Acids and Bases
			3.2.1 Conjugate Acids and Bases
		3.3 Equivalents and Normality
		3.4 Solution of Multiequilibria Systems
		3.5 Buffers
			3.5.1 Dilution of a Buffered Solution
			3.5.2 The Most Effective pH for a Buffer
		3.6 Acid–Base Titrations
			3.6.1 Titration of Strong Acids and Bases
			3.6.2 Titration of Weak Acids and Bases
			3.6.3 Indicating the Endpoint of an Acid–Base Titration
		3.7 Natural Buffering of Waters from Carbon Dioxide and Related Compounds
			3.7.1 Acidity and Alkalinity
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 4: Organic and Biochemistry
		4.1 Carbon
		4.2 Properties of Organic Compounds
		4.3 Functional Groups
		4.4 Types of Organic Compounds
			4.4.1 Aliphatic Compounds
				Aldehydes and Ketones
				Alcohols, Esters, and Ethers
			4.4.2 Nitrogen-containing Compounds
		4.5 Aromatic Compounds
			4.5.1 Compounds of Sulfur
		4.6 Naturally Occurring Organic Compounds
			4.6.1 Carbohydrates
			4.6.2 Proteins
			4.6.3 Fats and Oils
		4.7 Biochemistry
		4.8 Glycolysis
		4.9 The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
		4.10 Enzyme Kinetics
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 5: Analyses and Constituents in Water
		5.1 Titration
			5.1.1 Complex and Precipitate Formation Titrations
			5.1.2 Redox Titrations and Potentiometric Analyses
			5.1.3 Indicators for Potentiometric Analysis
		5.2 Colorimetric Analyses
			5.2.1 The Beer–Lambert Laws for Light Transmittance
		5.3 Physical Analyses
			5.3.1 Solids
			5.3.2 Turbidity and Color
		5.4 Determination of Organic Matter
			5.4.1 Chemical Oxygen Demand
				General Reaction for COD
				Interferences with the COD Test
			5.4.2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand
				Effects of Temperature on BOD Exertion
				Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous BOD
				Laboratory Methods for Determining BOD
				Limitations of the BOD Test for Biological Wastewater Treatment Process Design
				Analysis of a BOD Progression
			5.4.3. Total Organic Carbon
		Questions and Problems
		References
Section II: Microorganisms in Water and Water Quality
	Chapter 6: Microbiology
		6.1 Groups of Microorganisms and the Phylogenetic Tree
		6.2 Bacteria and Archaea
			6.2.1 Classification of Bacteria
				Taxonomy
				Metabolic Requirements
				Oxygen Requirements
				Temperature
				Salt and Sugar Concentrations
				pH
		6.3 Eukaryotes
			6.3.1 Algae
			6.3.2 Fungi
			6.3.3 Protists
		6.4 Other Microorganisms
			6.4.1 Viruses and Phages
			6.4.2 Rotifers
			6.4.3 Worms
		6.5 Determining the Growth of Microorganisms
			6.5.1 Growth of Pure Cultures
			6.5.2 Growth of Mixed Cultures
			6.5.3 Viability and Mass in Growing Cultures
			6.5.4 Enumeration of Microorganisms
				Plate Counts
				Practical Considerations in Determining Mean Values
			6.5.5 Microbial Genomics and Molecular Microbiology Tools
				Phylogenetic Microbial Community Composition Analysis
				Functional Analysis
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 7: Water, Wastes, and Disease
		7.1 Agents of Disease
			7.1.1 Bacterial Pathogens
			7.1.2 Viral Pathogens
			7.1.3 Protozoan Pathogens
			7.1.4 Helminths
			7.1.5 Insect and Animal Vectors of Disease
		7.2 Indicator, Test, and Model Microorganisms
		7.3 Indicators of Fecal Contamination
		7.4 Indicator Microorganisms
			7.4.1 Coliforms: Total, Thermotolerant, and E. coli
			7.4.2 Enterococci
		7.5 Surrogates
		7.6 Survival of Microorganisms in the Aquatic Environment
		7.7 Minimum Infective Dose
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 8: Water Constituents and Quality Standards
		8.1 Toxicity of Elements and Compounds
		8.2 Contaminants in Water
			8.2.1 Emerging Contaminants
			8.2.2 Common Contaminants
				Aluminum
				Nitrate
				Fluoride
				Detergents
			8.2.3 Carcinogens
			8.2.4 Radioactive Constituents
		8.3 Taste and Odor
		8.4 Bases for Standards
			8.4.1 Risk Assessment for Microbial Infection
			8.4.2 Determination of Carcinogenicity
			8.4.3 Toxicity Determination
			8.4.4 Environmental Water Quality Standards
		8.5 Standards for Drinking Water
			8.5.1 International Drinking Water Standards
			8.5.2 US Safe Drinking Water Act
			8.5.3 Canadian Water Quality Guidelines
		8.6 Comparison of Drinking Water Standards
			8.6.1 Microbiological Parameters
				WHO Guidelines for Microbiological Quality
				United States Standards for Microbiological Quality
				Canadian Guidelines for Microbiological Quality
			8.6.2 Chemical and Physical Qualities
			8.6.3 Aesthetic Quality
			8.6.4 Radiological Constituents
			8.6.5 Other Water Standards
		8.7 Water Consumption
		8.8 Canadian Federal Wastewater Quality Guidelines
		8.9 Wastewater Characteristics
			Greywater
		8.10 Wastewater Production
		Questions and Problems
		References
Section III: Water and Wastewater Treatment
	Chapter 9: Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations
		9.1 Water Treatment Operations
			Microbial Contaminants
			Reservoirs
			9.1.1 Home Water Treatment Units
		9.2 Wastewater Treatment Unit Operations
		9.3 Hydraulic Design of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants
			Flow in Pressurized Pipes
			Flow in Open Channels
			Other Losses
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 10: Mass Balances and Hydraulic Flow Regimes
		10.1 Setup of Mass Balances
			10.1.1 Mixing Characteristics of Basins
			10.1.2 Mass Balances for PF Reactors
				Method I
				Method II
				Method III
			10.1.3 Mass Balances and Reaction for CM Basins
			10.1.4 Batch Processes
		10.2 Flow Analysis of CM and PF Reactors
			10.2.1 Tracer Analysis of Complete Mixed Reactors
			10.2.2 Tracer Analysis of Plug Flow
			10.2.3 Complete Mixed Reactors in Series
			10.2.4 Other Flow Irregularities: Dead Volume and Short-circuiting
			10.2.5 Typical Flow Characteristics of Basins
			10.2.6 Measurement of Dispersion
		10.3 Detention Time in Vessels
			10.3.1 Average Detention Time
			10.3.2 The Effects of Flow Recycle on Detention Time
			10.3.3 The Effects of Recycle on Mixing
		10.4 Flow and Quality Equalization
		10.5 System Material Balances
		Questions and Problems
		References
Section IV: Physical–Chemical Treatment Processes
	Chapter 11: Screening and Sedimentation
		11.1 Screens and Bar Racks
			11.1.1 Screens for Water Treatment Plants
			11.1.2 Screens at Wastewater Treatment Plants
			11.1.3 Microstrainers
		11.2 Sedimentation
			11.2.1 Particle Settling Velocity
		11.3 Grit Chambers
			11.3.1 Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers
				Channel with Varying Cross Section
				Design Notes for a Parabolic Grit Chamber
			11.3.2 Aerated Grit Chambers
			11.3.3 Square Tank Degritter
			11.3.4 Vortex Grit Removal Devices
				Grit Washing
		11.4 Type I Sedimentation
			11.4.1 Theory
		11.5 Type II Sedimentation
			11.5.1 Laboratory Determination of Settling Velocity Distribution
			11.5.2 Type II Sedimentation Data Analysis
			11.5.3 Alternative Method for Calculating Total Removal
			11.5.4 Sizing the Basin
		11.6 Tube and Lamella Clarifiers
		11.7 Weir–Launder Design
		11.8 Clarifier Design for Water and Primary Wastewater Treatment
			11.8.1 Design Ranges for Typical Clarifiers for Water and Wastewater Treatment
			11.8.2 Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment
			11.8.3 Depth in Sedimentation Basins
		11.9 Inlet Hydraulics for Sedimentation Basins
			11.9.1 Flow Distributions
			11.9.2 Inlet Baffling
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 12: Mass Transfer and Aeration
		12.1 Fick’s Law
		12.2 Gas Transfer
			12.2.1 Calculating the Mass Transfer Coefficient
			12.2.2 The Effects of pH on Mass Transfer
		12.3 Aeration in Water and Wastewater Treatment
			12.3.1 Hazards Associated with Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide, and Hydrogen Sulfide
		12.4 Design of Aeration Systems
			12.4.1 Gravity Aerators
			12.4.2 Spray Aerators
			12.4.3 Diffused Aerators
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 13: Coagulation and Flocculation
		13.1 Coagulation
			Recovery of Alum and Iron Coagulants
		13.2 Mixing and Power Dissipation
		13.3 Mixers
			13.3.1 Mechanical Mixers
			13.3.2 Pneumatic Mixers
			13.3.3 Hydraulic Mixers
			Venturi Sections and Hydraulic Jumps
		13.4 Flocculators
			13.4.1 Paddle Flocculators
			13.4.2 Vertical-Shaft Turbine Flocculators
			13.4.3 Pipes
			13.4.4 Baffled Channels
			13.4.5 Upflow Solids Contact Clarifier
			13.4.6 Alabama Flocculator
			13.4.7 Spiral Flow Tanks
			13.4.8 Pebble Bed Flocculators
			13.4.9 Ballasted Flocculation
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 14: Filtration
		14.1 Slow Sand Filters and Rapid Filters
		14.2 Filtering Materials
			14.2.1 Grain Size and Distribution
		14.3 Headloss in Filters
			14.3.1 Grain Size Distribution and Headloss
		14.4 Backwashing Filters
			14.4.1. Total Head Requirements for Backwashing
				Losses in the Expanded Media
			14.4.2. Backwash Velocity
				Method 1
				Method 2
				Headloss and Expansion in a Stratified Bed
		14.5 Support Media and Underdrains in Rapid Filters
			Other Design Features of Filters
			Auxiliary Wash and Air Scour Systems
		14.6 Filter Beds for Water and Wastewater Treatment
		14.7 Air Binding of Filters
		14.8 Rapid Filtration Alternatives
			14.8.1 Single-medium and Multimedia Filters
			14.8.2 Constant- and Declining-rate Filtration
			14.8.3 Direct Filtration
		14.9 Pressure Filters
		14.10 Slow Sand Filters
			14.10.1 Slow Sand Filters for Tertiary Wastewater Treatment
		14.11 Biological Filtration for Water Treatment
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 15: Physical–Chemical Treatment for Dissolved Constituents
		15.1 Water Softening
		15.2 Lime–Soda Softening
			15.2.1 Treatment Methods for Lime–Soda Hardness Removal
			15.2.2 Bar Graphs
				Lime Recovery and Sludge Reduction
		15.3 Corrosion Prevention in Water Supply Systems
			15.3.1 The Langelier Index Misconception
		15.4 Iron and Manganese Removal
			15.4.1 Greensand
			15.4.2 Aeration
			15.4.3 Sequestering Iron and Manganese
			15.4.4 Biological Removal of Iron and Manganese
		15.5 Phosphorus Removal from Wastewater by Chemical Precipitation
			15.5.1 Removal of Phosphorus by Chemically Reactive Species
		15.6 Removal of Arsenic and Metals
			15.6.1 Metals Removal
			15.6.2 Arsenic Removal
		15.7 Advanced Oxidation Processes
		15.8 Ion Exchange
			15.8.1 Activated Alumina
			15.8.2 Ammonia and Nitrate Removal by Ion Exchange
		15.9 Fluoridation and Defluoridation
		15.10 Membrane Processes
			15.10.1 Assessment of Water Suitability for Membrane Treatment
			15.10.2 Concentrate Disposal
			15.10.3 Membranes for Water Treatment
				Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration Systems
				Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis Treatment
				Electrodialysis
		15.11 Activated Carbon Adsorption
			15.11.1 Activated Carbon – Preparation and Characteristics
			15.11.2 Adsorption Isotherms
			15.11.3 Granular Activated Carbon Adsorbers
		15.12 Design of Fixed-bed Adsorbers
			15.12.1 Rate Formulation for Adsorption
			15.12.2 Theory of Fixed-bed Adsorber Systems
				The Capacity Utilized in the Adsorption Zone
				Competitive Adsorption
			15.12.3 Bed-depth Service Time Method
			15.12.4 Rapid Small-Scale Column Tests
			15.12.5 Granular Activated Carbon Reactors in Series
			15.12.6 Design of a Suspended Media PAC or GAC Continuous Flow Reactor
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 16: Disinfection
		16.1 Kinetics of Disinfection
		16.2 Chlorination
			16.2.1 Chemistry of Chlorine
			16.2.2 Measurement of Free and Residual Chlorine
			16.2.3 Chlorine Decay
			16.2.4 Drinking Water Disinfection by Chlorine
			16.2.5 Wastewater Disinfection by Chlorine
			16.2.6 Design of Contacting Systems for Chlorine
			16.2.7 Disinfection as the Sole Treatment of Surface Water
			16.2.8 Other Applications of Chlorine
			16.2.9 Dechlorination
		16.3 Chloramines
		16.4 Chlorine Dioxide
			16.4.1 Chlorine Dioxide Doses as a Primary Disinfectant
			16.4.2 Chlorine Dioxide for Pre-disinfection or for Residual Disinfection
			16.4.3 Generation of Chlorine Dioxide
		16.5 Peracids: Peracetic Acid (PAA) and Performic Acid (PFA)
			16.5.1 Peracetic Acid
				Kinetics of Disinfection Using PAA
				Measuring PAA Residuals
				Applications for Wastewater Disinfection
				Chemical Disinfection Process Control
			16.5.2 Performic Acid
		16.6 Ozone
			16.6.1 Determining the Appropriate Ozone Dose
			16.6.2 Ozone Generation
			16.6.3 Ozone Dissolution Systems
			16.6.4 Ozone Contactor Basins
			16.6.5 Ozone Chemistry: Mass Transfer Coefficients and Radicals Production
			16.6.6 Ozone for Wastewater Disinfection
			16.6.7 Ozone for Destruction of Micropollutants
		16.7 Ultraviolet Radiation
			16.7.1 Mechanism of UV Disinfection
			16.7.2 Repair of UV Damage
				Photo Repair
				Dark Repair
			16.7.3 Interferences
			16.7.4 Generation of Ultraviolet Light and Ultraviolet Reactors
			16.7.5 Disinfection Kinetics
			16.7.6 Disinfection Doses (or Fluences)
			16.7.7 Determination of UV Fluence
			16.7.8 Ultraviolet Reactors
		16.8 Point-of-use Disinfectants: Solar Disinfection (SODIS), with or without Photoreactants such as TiO2
		16.9 Disinfection Byproducts
			16.9.1 Chlorine
			16.9.2 Chloramines
			16.9.3 Chlorine Dioxide
			16.9.4 Peracids
			16.9.5 Ozone
			16.9.6 Ultraviolet
			16.9.7 Comparative Risks
		16.10 Disinfection to Combat Invasive Species
		Questions and Problems
		References
Section V: Biological Wastewater Treatment
	Chapter 17: Aerobic Biological Treatment: Biotreatment Processes
		17.1 Microorganisms in Aerobic Biological Treatment
		17.2 The Activated Sludge Process
		17.3 Substrate Removal and Growth of Microorganisms
			17.3.1 Substrate Removal
				Temperature Dependence of Rate Coefficients
				BOD, COD, and TOC Removal
			17.3.2 Growth of Microorganisms and Biological Sludge Production
				Sludge Composition and Nutrient Requirements
		17.4 Activated Sludge Configurations
			17.4.1 Definition of Symbols for the Activated Sludge Process Models
			17.4.2 Reactor
			17.4.3 System Effluent and Waste Sludge Line
			17.4.4 Clarifier
		17.5 Process Analysis
			17.5.1 Physical Concentration of Solids in the Bioreactor
			17.5.2 Solids Retention Time
			17.5.3 Sludge Volume Index
			17.5.4 CM Reactor Without Recycle
				Substrate Balance
				Biomass Balance
			17.5.5 CM Reactor with Recycle
				Biomass Balance
			17.5.6 Application of the Basic Model in the Historical Context
				Frailties of the Historical Models
			17.5.7 Matrix Representation of the Basic (Soluble Substrate) Model
			17.5.8 The Rate of Recycle
			17.5.9 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio and SRT
		17.6 Advanced Model for Carbon Removal
			17.6.1 Total Effluent COD from the Process
			17.6.2 Removal of Influent Particulate Organic Matter
			17.6.3 Estimation of Parameters and Calibration of the Advanced Model
			17.6.4 Calibration of Models to Existing Data
		17.7 Sludge Production in Activated Sludge Systems
		17.8 Plug Flow Activated Sludge Treatment
		17.9 Variations of the Activated Sludge Process
			17.9.1 Sequencing Batch Reactors
			17.9.2 Extended Aeration
		17.10 Other Activated Sludge Process Variations
			17.10.1 Pure Oxygen Activated Sludge Process
			17.10.2 Powdered Activated Carbon Activated Sludge Process
				Design Parameters and Operating Conditions for Activated Sludge Processes
		17.11 Design of Activated Sludge Processes for Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal
			17.11.1 Nitrogen Transformations
				Nitrogen Removal–Denitrification
			17.11.2 Advanced Denitrification Processes
				SHARON Process
				Anammox Process
				Other Processes
			17.11.3 Enhanced Phosphorus Uptake
				Fermentation of Primary or Activated Sludge
				Phostrip and Bardenpho Bio-P Processes
		17.12 Operating Characteristics of Activated Sludge Processes
			17.12.1 SRT and Characteristics of Waste Activated Sludge
		17.13 Granular Activated Sludge and Membrane Processes
			17.13.1 Granular Activated Sludge Processes
			17.13.2 Membrane Activated Sludge Processes
				Design of Submerged Membrane Reactors
		17.14 Fixed-Film Activated Sludge Processes
			17.14.1 Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge and Moving Bed Bioreactor Processes
				Design of MBBRs
			17.14.2 Biologically Activated Filters
				Design of Biological Active Filters
			17.14.3 Rotating Biological Contact Units
		17.15 Fixed-Film Trickling Filter Processes
			17.15.1 Trickling Filters
				Sludge Production from Trickling Filters
				Air Supply in Trickling Filters
				Operation of Trickling Filters
			17.15.2 Hydraulic Design of Distributors for Trickling Filters
		17.16 Oxygen Uptake in Activated Sludge Processes
		17.17 Metals Removal in Activated Sludge Processes
		17.18 Aerobic Sludge Digestion
			17.18.1 Model for Aerobic Sludge Digestion
				Oxygen Uptake in Aerobic Digestion
				Rate Constants and Sludge Degradability
			17.18.2 Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion
				Pre-treatment for Aerobic Sludge Digestion
			17.18.3 Indicator Microorganism Reduction in Aerobic Digestion
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 18: Aerobic Biological Treatment: Other Process Operations
		18.1 Aeration in Biological Wastewater Treatment
			18.1.1 Aeration Devices in Wastewater Treatment
				Diffused Aerators
				Surface and Other Aerators
		18.2 Post-aeration Systems for Wastewater Treatment
			18.2.1 Diffused Aeration Systems
			18.2.2 Cascades
			18.2.3 Weirs
		18.3 Type III Sedimentation: Zone Settling
			18.3.1 Design of a Basin for Type III Sedimentation
				Gravity Flux
				Underflow Flux
			18.3.2 Secondary Clarifier Design
			18.3.3 Modeling for Secondary Clarifier and Operation
			18.3.4 Membrane Separation of Solids
				Lamella Clarifiers
		18.4 Sludge Settling Problems and Foaming
			18.4.1 Microorganisms
			18.4.2 Selectors and Process Operating Conditions
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 19: Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment
		History
		19.1 Anaerobic Metabolism
			19.1.1 Hydrolysis
			19.1.2 Acid Formation: Acidogenesis and Acetogenesis
			19.1.3 Methanogenesis
			19.1.4 Other Metabolic Pathways
			19.1.5 Environmental Variables
				Oxidation–Reduction Potential
				Temperature
				pH
				Mixing
				Ammonia and Sulfide Control
				Nutrient Requirements
		19.2 Process Fundamentals
			19.2.1 Solids Yield and Retention Time
			19.2.2 Biogas Potential
				Biochemical Methane Potential and Anaerobic Toxicity Assay
				Methane Production in Anaerobic Treatment
				Dissolved Methane
				Biogas Utilization
		19.3 Process Analysis
			19.3.1 Definition of Symbols for the Anaerobic Models
			19.3.2 General Model for an Anaerobic Process
				Anaerobic Reactor Receiving Only Particulate Substrate
				Anaerobic Reactor Receiving Only Soluble Substrate
				The Traditional Digester Sizing Equation for Anaerobic Sludge Digesters
			19.3.3 Advanced Model for an Anaerobic Process
				Substrate Removal and Biomass Accumulation
				Temperature Effects on Rate Coefficients
		19.4 Misconceptions and Barriers about Anaerobic Treatment
		19.5 Anaerobic Treatment Processes
			19.5.1 Conventional Anaerobic Treatment
			19.5.2 Contact Process
			19.5.3 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor
			19.5.4 Fixed-Film Reactors
				Upflow Fixed-Film Reactors
				Downflow Fixed-Film Reactors
				Fluidized Bed Reactors
			19.5.5 Two-Phase Anaerobic Digestion
			19.5.6 Thermophilic Digestion
			19.5.7 Membrane Anaerobic Treatment
			19.5.8 Pre-treatment of Sludge for Anaerobic Digestion of Biosolids
		19.6 Anaerobic Digestion of Municipal Solid Waste
		19.7 Process Stability and Monitoring
			19.7.1 Chemical Precipitation Problems in Anaerobic Digesters
			19.7.2 Recovery of Nutrients through Struvite Harvesting
			19.7.3 Sludge Production
			19.7.4 Anaerobic Treatment of Low-Strength Wastes
		19.8 Comparison of Anaerobic and Aerobic Treatment Processes
			19.8.1 Pollutant Removal Efficiency
			19.8.2 Number and Size of Operations
			19.8.3 Energy and Chemical Inputs
			19.8.4 Heat Exchanger
		19.9 Energy Assessment of Anaerobic and Aerobic Treatment
			Anaerobic Versus Aerobic Treatment
			Calculation of the Energy Potential of a Waste
		19.10 Pathogen Reduction in Anaerobic Processes
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 20: Treatment in Ponds and Land Systems
		20.1 Overview of Stabilization Ponds
			20.1.1 Pond Operation
			20.1.2 Pond Effluent Quality
		20.2 Pond Types
		20.3 Design of Pond Systems
			20.3.1 Design of Ponds in the Far North
			20.3.2 Models for Facultative Ponds
			20.3.3 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal
			20.3.4 Heat Balance for Ponds
		20.4 Removal of Suspended Solids from Pond Effluents
		20.5 Indicator Microorganism Die-off in Ponds
		20.6 Aerated Lagoons
		20.7 Treatment of Wastewater in Land Systems
			20.7.1 Land Treatment of Wastewater
				Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity
				Wastewater Constituents Influencing Land Treatment
			20.7.2 Slow Rate Land Application Systems
			20.7.3 Soil Aquifer Treatment
			20.7.4 Overland Flow Systems
		Questions and Problems
		References
Section VI: Final Disposal and Impact Analysis
	Chapter 21: Sludge Processing and Land Application
		21.1 Sludge Characteristics and Conditioning
			Sludge Density
			Sludge Viscosity
		21.2 Sludge Generation and Treatment Processes
		21.3 Sludge Conditioning
		21.4 Sludge Thickening
			21.4.1 Gravity Thickening
			21.4.2 Flotation Thickening
		21.5 Mechanical Sludge Dewatering
			21.5.1 Centrifugation
			21.5.2 Vacuum Dewatering
			21.5.3 Plate Pressure Filters
		21.6 Land Application of Sludge
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 22: Effluent Disposal in Natural Waters
		22.1 Pollutants in Natural Waters
			22.1.1 Water Quality Indices
				Fish Survival and Temperature
				Nutrient Loadings to Lakes
		22.2 Loading Equations for Streams
			22.2.1 Pollutant Decay in Streams
			22.2.2 Conservative Substance
				Point Source
				Distributed Source
			22.2.3 Substances That Are Transformed by One Reaction
				Point Source
				Distributed Source
		22.3 Dissolved Oxygen Variation in a Stream
			22.3.1 Nitrification in Natural Waters
			22.3.2 Factors Affecting the Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve
			22.3.3 The Reaeration Rate Coefficient
			22.3.4 Reaeration at Dams
		22.4 Combined Sewer Overflows Abatement
		Questions and Problems
		References
	Chapter 23: Life Cycle Analysis
		23.1 Historical Development of LCA
		23.2 Why Use LCA; What Are the Objectives; What Are Its Benefits and What Does It Not Do?
		23.3 ISO Standards 14040 and 14044
		23.4 Definitions of Terms in ISO 14040 and 14044
		23.5 Principles Established by ISO 14040
		23.6 Key Components of the ISO Standards
			23.6.1 Goal and Scope
			23.6.2 System Boundaries
				Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
			23.6.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
				Selection of Impact Categories, Category Indicators, and Characterization Models
				Assignment of LCI Results to the Selected Impact Categories (Classification)
				Calculation of Category Indicator Results (Characterization)
				Characterization Factors, Midpoints, and Endpoints
				Optional Elements of the LCIA
			23.6.4 Limitations of LCIA
			23.6.5 Interpretation
		23.7 Software and Databases
		23.8 Examples of Case Studies of LCA in Water and Wastewater Treatment Projects
		Questions and Problems
		References
Appendix A
	A.1 Normal Distribution
	A.2 Integrating Factor for Linear Differential Equations of the First Order
	References
Author Index
Subject Index
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