Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements

Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Contents
1 Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 General Measurement System
		Sensor and Transducer
		Output Stage
		General Template for a Measurement System
	1.3 Experimental Test Plan
		Variables
		Parameters
		Noise and Interference
		Random Tests
		Concomitant Methods
	1.4 CALIBRATION
		Static Calibration
		Dynamic Calibration
		Static Sensitivity
		Range
		Resolution
		Accuracy and Error
		Random and Systematic Errors and Uncertainty
		Sequential Test
		Hysteresis
		Random Test
		Linearity Error
		Sensitivity and Zero Errors
		Instrument Repeatability
		Reproducibility
		Instrument Precision
		Overall Instrument Error and Instrument Uncertainty
	1.5 Standards
		Primary Standards
		Base Dimensions and Their Units
		Derived Units
		Hierarchy of Standards
		Test Standards and Codes
	1.6 Presenting Data
		Rectangular Coordinate Format
		Semilog Coordinate Format
		Full-Log Coordinate Format
		Significant Digits
	1.7 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
2 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Input/Output Signal Concepts
		Generalized Behavior
		Classification of Waveforms
		Signal Waveforms
	2.3 Signal Analysis
		Signal Root-Mean-Square Value
		Discrete-Time or Digital Signals
		Direct Current Offset
	2.4 Signal Amplitude And Frequency
		Periodic Signals
		Frequency Analysis
		Fourier Series and Coefficients
		Fourier Coefficients for Functions Having Arbitrary Periods
		Even and Odd Functions
		Fourier Cosine Series
		Fourier Sine Series
	2.5 Fourier Transform and The Frequency Spectrum
		Discrete Fourier Transform
		Analysis of Signals in Frequency Space
	2.6 Summary
	References
	Suggested Reading
	Nomenclature
	Problems
3 Measurement System Behavior
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 General Model for a Measurement System
		Dynamic Measurements
		Measurement System Model
	3.3 Special Cases of the General System Model
		Zero-Order Systems
		First-Order Systems
		Second-Order Systems
	3.4 Transfer Functions
	3.5 Phase Linearity
	3.6 Multiple-Function Inputs
	3.7 Coupled Systems
	3.8 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
4 Probability and Statistics
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Statistical Measurement Theory
		Probability Density Functions
	4.3 Describing the Behavior of a Population
	4.4 Statistics of Finite-Sized Data Sets
		Standard Deviation of the Means
		Pooled Statistics
	4.5 Chi-Squared Distribution
		Precision Interval in a Sample Variance
		Goodness-of-Fit Test
	4.6 Regression Analysis
		Least-Squares Regression Analysis
		Linear Polynomials
	4.7 Data Outlier Detection
	4.8 Number of Measurements Required
	4.9 Monte Carlo Simulations
	4.10 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
5 Uncertainty Analysis
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Measurement Errors
	5.3 Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis
		Combining Elemental Errors: RSS Method
		Design-Stage Uncertainty
	5.4 Identifying Error Sources
		Calibration Errors
		Data-Acquisition Errors
		Data-Reduction Errors
	5.5 Systematic and Random Errors
		Systematic Error
		Random Error
	5.6 Uncertainty Analysis: Error Propagation
		Propagation of Error
		Sequential Perturbation
		Monte Carlo Method
	5.7 Advanced-Stage Uncertainty Analysis
		Zero-Order Uncertainty
		Higher-Order Uncertainty
		Nth-Order Uncertainty
	5.8 Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis
		Propagation of Elemental Errors
		Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result
	5.9 Correction for Correlated Errors
	5.10 Nonsymmetrical Systematic Uncertainty Interval
	5.11 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
6 Analog Electrical Devices and Measurements
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Analog Devices: Current Measurements
		Direct Current
		Alternating Current
	6.3 Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements
		Analog Voltage Meters
		Oscilloscope
		Potentiometer
	6.4 Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements
		Ohmmeter Circuits
		Bridge Circuits
		Null Method
		Deflection Method
	6.5 Loading Errors and Impedance Matching
		Loading Errors for Voltage-Dividing Circuit
		Interstage Loading Errors
	6.6 Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers
	6.7 Analog Signal Conditioning: Special-Purpose Circuits
		Analog Voltage Comparator
		Sample-and-Hold Circuit
		Charge Amplifier
		4–20 mA Current Loop
		Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits
	6.8 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters
		Butterworth Filter Design
		Improved Butterworth Filter Designs
		Bessel Filter Design
		Active Filters
	6.9 Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires
		Ground and Ground Loops
		Shields
		Connecting Wires
	6.10 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
7 Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Sampling Concepts
		Sample Rate
		Alias Frequencies
		Amplitude Ambiguity
		Leakage
		Waveform Fidelity
	7.3 Digital Devices: Bits and Words
	7.4 Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals
	7.5 Voltage Measurements
		Digital-to-Analog Converter
		Analog-to-Digital Converter
		Successive Approximation Converters
	7.6 Data-Acquisition Systems
	7.7 Data-Acquisition System Components
		Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplification
		Components for Acquiring Data
	7.8 Analog Input-Output Communication
		Data-Acquisition Boards
	7.9 Digital Input-Output Communication
		Serial Communications: RS-232C
		Bluetooth Communications
		Universal Serial Bus and Firewire
		Parallel Communications GPIB (IEEE-488)
	7.10 Digital Image Acquisition and Processing
		Image Acquisition
		Image Processing
	7.11 Summary
	References
	Suggested Reading
	Nomenclature
	Problems
8 Temperature Measurements
	8.1 Introduction
		Historical Background
	8.2 Temperature Standards and Definition
		Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation
		Temperature Scales and Standards
	8.3 Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion
		Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
		Bimetallic Thermometers
	8.4 Electrical Resistance Thermometry
		Resistance Temperature Detectors
		Thermistors
	8.5 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement
		Seebeck Effect
		Peltier Effect
		Thomson Effect
		Fundamental Thermocouple Laws
		Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples
		Thermocouple Standards
		Thermocouple Voltage Measurement
		Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits
		Data-Acquisition Considerations
	8.6 Radiative Temperature Measurements
		Radiation Fundamentals
		Radiation Detectors
		Radiative Temperature Measurements
		Optical Fiber Thermometers
	8.7 Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement
		Insertion Errors
		Conduction Errors
		Radiation Errors
		Radiation Shielding
		Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement
	8.8 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
9 Pressure and Velocity Measurements
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Pressure Concepts
	9.3 Pressure Reference Instruments
		McLeod Gauge
		Barometer
		Manometer
		Deadweight Testers
	9.4 Pressure Transducers
		Bourdon Tube
		Bellows and Capsule Elements
		Diaphragms
		Piezoelectric Crystal Elements
	9.5 Pressure Transducer Calibration
		Static Calibration
		Dynamic Calibration
	9.6 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids
		Total Pressure Measurement
		Static Pressure Measurement
	9.7 Modeling Pressure and Fluid Systems
	9.8 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects
		Liquids
		Gases
		Heavily Damped Systems
	9.9 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems
		Pitot-Static Pressure Probe
		Thermal Anemometry
		Doppler Anemometry
		Particle Image Velocimetry
		Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods
	9.10 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
10 Flow Measurements
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Historical Background
	10.3 Flow Rate Concepts
	10.4 Volume Flow Rate Through Velocity Determination
	10.5 Pressure Differential Meters
		Obstruction Meters
		Orifice Meter
		Venturi Meter
		Flow Nozzles
		Sonic Nozzles
		Obstruction Meter Selection
		Laminar Flow Elements
	10.6 Insertion Volume Flow Meters
		Electromagnetic Flow Meters
		Vortex Shedding Meters
		Rotameters
		Turbine Meters
		Transit Time and Doppler (Ultrasonic) Flow Meters
		Positive Displacement Meters
	10.7 Mass Flow Meters
		Thermal Flow Meter
		Coriolis Flow Meter
	10.8 Flow Meter Calibration and Standards
	10.9 Estimating Standard Flow Rate
	10.10 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
11 Strain Measurement
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Stress and Strain
		Lateral Strains
	11.3 Resistance Strain Gauges
		Metallic Gauges
		Strain Gauge Construction and Bonding
		Semiconductor Strain Gauges
	11.4 Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits
	11.5 Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement
		The Multiple Gauge Bridge
		Bridge Constant
	11.6 Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation
		Temperature Compensation
		Bridge Static Sensitivity
		Practical Considerations
		Analysis of Strain Gauge Data
		Signal Conditioning
		Uncertainties in Multichannel Measurements
	11.7 Optical Strain Measuring Techniques
		Basic Characteristics of Light
		Photoelastic Measurement
		Moiré Methods
	11.8 Summary
	References
	Nomenclature
	Problems
12 Mechatronics: Sensors, Actuators, and Controls
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Sensors
		Displacement Sensors
		Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration
		Velocity Measurements
		Angular Velocity Measurements
		Force Measurement
		Torque Measurements
		Mechanical Power Measurements
	12.3 Actuators
		Linear Actuators
		Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators
		Rotary Actuators
		Flow-Control Valves
	12.4 Controls
		Dynamic Response
		Laplace Transforms
		Block Diagrams
		Model for Oven Control
		Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
		Proportional Integral-Derivative Control of a Second-Order System
	12.5 Summary
	Nomenclature
	References
	Problems
Appendix A A Guide for Technical Writing
	A Guide For Technical Writing
		Abstract
		Introduction
		Approach
		Conclusions
		References
Appendix B Property Data and Conversion Factors
Appendix C Laplace Transform Basics
	C.1 Final Value Theorem
	C.2 Laplace Transform Pairs
	References
Glossary
Index