The Vitamins fundamental aspects in nutrition and health

Front Cover......Page 1
The Vitamins......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 18
Preface to the Third Edition......Page 20
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 22
Preface to the First Edition......Page 24
To the Student......Page 26
To the Instructor......Page 27
I: Perspectives on the Vitamins in Nutrition......Page 30
1. Thinking About Vitamins......Page 32
Some Caveats......Page 33
4. The Recognized Vitamins......Page 35
2. Discovery of the Vitamins......Page 36
3. The Empirical Phase of Vitamin Discovery......Page 37
Scurvy......Page 38
Pellagra......Page 39
Ideas Prevalent by 1900......Page 40
Appropriate Animal Models Provided Relevance......Page 41
Serendipity or a Keen Eye?......Page 42
Two Lines of Inquiry......Page 43
Impact of the New Concept......Page 44
New Animal Model Reveals New Vitamin: “C”......Page 46
Vitamin A Prevents Rickets?......Page 47
Vitamers D......Page 48
Vitamin B2 Complex Yields Riboflavin......Page 49
Pellagra: An Infectious Disease?......Page 50
B2 Complex Yields Pantothenic Acid......Page 51
Antihemorrhagic Factor: Vitamin K......Page 52
Bios Yields Biotin......Page 53
Yeast Growth Related to Anemia?......Page 54
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors......Page 55
7. Vitamin Terminology......Page 56
9. The Modern History of the Vitamins......Page 58
Recommended Reading......Page 59
3. Properties of Vitamins......Page 62
Classifying the Vitamins According to Their Solubilities......Page 63
2. Vitamin A......Page 69
Chemistry of Vitamin A......Page 70
3. Vitamin D......Page 71
Vitamin D Chemistry......Page 72
Vitamin D Biopotency......Page 73
Vitamin E Chemistry......Page 74
Vitamin K Nomenclature......Page 75
6. Vitamin C......Page 76
Vitamin C Chemistry......Page 77
Thiamin Chemistry......Page 78
Riboflavin Chemistry......Page 79
Niacin Chemistry......Page 80
Vitamin B6 Chemistry......Page 81
Pantothenic Acid Nomenclature......Page 82
Folate Nomenclature......Page 83
14. Vitamin B12......Page 84
Vitamin B12 Chemistry......Page 85
Vitamin Stability......Page 86
Vitamin Absorption......Page 88
Vitamin Transport......Page 93
Some Vitamins Have Limited Biosynthesis......Page 94
Vitamin Excretion......Page 95
Vitamins Serve Five Basic Functions......Page 98
Recommended Reading......Page 99
4. Vitamin Deficiency......Page 100
Vitamin Deficiencies Involve Cascades of Progressive Changes......Page 101
Relationships Between Biochemical Lesions and Clinical Diseases of Vitamin Deficiencies......Page 102
Potential Causes of Vitamin Deficiencies in Humans......Page 105
Intervention is Most Effective in Early Stages of Vitamin Deficiency......Page 108
Recommended Reading......Page 119
II: Considering the Individual Vitamins......Page 120
5. Vitamin A......Page 122
Dietary Sources of Vitamin A......Page 123
Expressing the Vitamin A Activities in Foods......Page 124
Foods Rich in Vitamin A......Page 125
Carotenoid Metabolism Linked to Absorption......Page 126
Mucosal Metabolism of Retinol......Page 128
Impact of Abetalipoproteinemia......Page 129
Retinol Transported Protein-Bound in the Plasma......Page 130
Other Vitamin A-Binding Proteins Involved in Vitamin A Transport......Page 132
Cellular Uptake of Retinol......Page 133
Transport Roles of Vitamin A-Binding Proteins......Page 134
Vitamin A in the Eye......Page 135
Esterification......Page 136
Fates of Retinoic Acid......Page 137
Role of Retinoid-Binding Proteins in Modulating Vitamin A Metabolism......Page 138
Vitamin A in Vision......Page 139
Vitamin A Regulation of Gene Transcription......Page 141
Vitamin A in Embryogenesis......Page 144
Vitamin A in Bone Metabolism......Page 145
Vitamin A in Hematopoiesis......Page 146
Immune Function......Page 147
Obesity......Page 151
Antioxidant Protection......Page 152
Anticarcinogenesis......Page 153
8. Vitamin A Deficiency......Page 155
Detection of Vitamin A Deficiency......Page 158
Treatment of Vitamin A Deficiency......Page 160
9. Vitamin A Toxicity......Page 161
Embryotoxic Potential of High Levels of Vitamin A......Page 162
Carotenoid Toxicity......Page 163
Case 2......Page 164
Case Questions and Exercises......Page 165
Recommended Reading......Page 166
6. Vitamin D......Page 168
1. The Significance of Vitamin D......Page 169
Distribution in Foods......Page 170
Biosynthesis of Vitamin D3......Page 171
Micelle-Dependent Passive Diffusion......Page 174
Vitamin D-Binding Protein......Page 175
25-Hydroxylation......Page 176
Epimerization......Page 177
Regulation of Vitamin D Metabolism......Page 178
Vitamin D3 as a Steroid Hormone......Page 179
Genomic Pathways – the Vitamin D Receptor......Page 180
Evidence for Non-Genomic Pathways......Page 182
Roles of Vitamin D in Calcium and Phosphorus Metabolism......Page 184
Intestinal Absorption of Ca2......Page 185
Bone Mineral Turnover......Page 186
Roles of Other Minerals......Page 189
Immune Regulation......Page 190
Pancreatic Endocrine Function......Page 191
Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)......Page 192
Other Autoimmune Diseases......Page 193
Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes (Type 2 Diabetes, T2D)......Page 194
Effects of Obesity......Page 195
Anticarcinogenesis......Page 196
Colorectal Cancer......Page 197
Breast Cancer......Page 198
Healthful Vitamin D Status......Page 199
Causes of Vitamin D Deficiency......Page 200
Osteomalacia......Page 201
Osteoporosis......Page 202
Osteoporosis......Page 203
9. Vitamin D Toxicity......Page 204
Instructions......Page 205
Case 2......Page 206
Recommended Reading......Page 207
7. Vitamin E......Page 210
Distribution in Foods......Page 211
Dietary Sources of Vitamin E......Page 212
Uptake into Lymphatic Circulation......Page 214
Roles of Lipoproteins......Page 215
Lipid Transfer Proteins and Lipases......Page 216
α-Tocopherol Transfer Protein......Page 217
Tissue Tocopherols......Page 218
Adipose Tissue......Page 219
Oxidation of the Chroman Group......Page 220
Oxidation of the Phytyl Side Chain......Page 221
Production of Free Radicals and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)......Page 222
Mechanism of Lipid Peroxidation......Page 223
Interrelationships of Vitamin E and Other Factors in Antioxidant Defense......Page 224
Inflammation and Immunity......Page 225
7. Vitamin E in Health and Disease......Page 227
Aging......Page 228
Disorders Involving Oxidative Stress......Page 229
Diabetes......Page 230
Skin Health......Page 231
Cardiovascular Health......Page 232
Anticarcinogenesis......Page 234
8. Vitamin E Deficiency......Page 235
Instructions......Page 237
Case 2......Page 238
Recommended Reading......Page 239
8. Vitamin K......Page 242
Vitamers K......Page 243
Bioavailability......Page 244
Intestinal Microbial Synthesis......Page 245
Absorbed Vitamin K Transferred to Lipoproteins......Page 246
Alkylation......Page 247
Redox Cycling......Page 248
Vitamin K Antagonists......Page 249
Vitamin K-Dependent Gla Proteins......Page 250
Blood Clotting......Page 251
Bone Mineralization......Page 253
Other Functions......Page 254
Anticarcinogenesis......Page 255
Nervous Function......Page 256
Risk Factors for Vitamin K Deficiency......Page 257
Neonates......Page 258
Case 1......Page 259
Case Questions and Exercises......Page 260
Recommended Reading......Page 261
9. Vitamin C......Page 262
Stability in Foods......Page 263
Biosynthesis of Ascorbic Acid......Page 264
Dietary Need Due to Enzyme Deficiency......Page 265
Cellular Uptake by the Same Mechanisms......Page 266
Tissue Distribution......Page 267
Ascorbic Acid Regeneration......Page 268
6. Metabolic Functions of Vitamin C......Page 269
Antioxidant Functions......Page 270
Pro-Oxidant Potential......Page 271
Promotion of Iron Bioavailability......Page 272
Enzyme Co-Substrate Functions......Page 273
Peptide Hormone Biosynthesis......Page 274
7. Vitamin C in Health and Disease......Page 275
Immunity and Inflammation......Page 276
Other Infections......Page 277
Cardiovascular Health......Page 278
Exercise Tolerance......Page 279
Skin Health......Page 280
Anticarcinogenesis......Page 281
Determinants of Risk......Page 282
Deficiency Signs in Humans......Page 283
9. Vitamin C Toxicity......Page 284
Case 1......Page 285
Case 2......Page 286
Recommended Reading......Page 287
10. Thiamin......Page 290
Stability in Foods......Page 291
Thiamin Antagonists......Page 292
Tissue Distribution......Page 294
Excretion......Page 295
α-Keto Acid Dehydrogenases......Page 296
Peroxisomal Fatty Acid Oxidation......Page 297
Nervous Function......Page 298
Vascular Function......Page 299
General Signs......Page 300
Polyneuritis in Animals......Page 301
Beriberi in Humans......Page 302
Case 1......Page 303
Recommended Reading......Page 304
11. Riboflavin......Page 306
Stability......Page 307
Protein Binding......Page 308
Conversion to Coenzyme Forms......Page 309
Excretion......Page 310
Coenzyme Functions......Page 311
Anticarcinogenesis......Page 313
8. Riboflavin Deficiency......Page 314
Deficiency Signs in Humans......Page 315
9. Riboflavin Toxicity......Page 316
Recommended Reading......Page 317
12. Niacin......Page 320
Bioavailability......Page 321
Importance of Dietary Tryptophan......Page 322
Niacin Receptor......Page 323
Tryptophan–Niacin Conversion......Page 324
Determinants of Tryptophan–Niacin Conversion......Page 325
Three Sources of Pyridine Nucleotides......Page 326
Coenzyme Functions......Page 327
Mono(ADP-Ribosyl)ation......Page 328
Cardiovascular Health......Page 329
Depression......Page 331
Deficiency Signs in Humans......Page 332
Determinants of Niacin Status......Page 333
Nicotinamide......Page 334
Case Questions and Exercises......Page 335
Recommended Reading......Page 336
13. Vitamin B6......Page 338
Hindgut Microbial Synthesis......Page 339
Diffusion Linked to Phosphorylation......Page 340
Interconversion of Vitamers......Page 341
Mechanisms of Action......Page 343
Amino Acid Metabolism......Page 344
Lipid Metabolism......Page 345
Neurologic Function......Page 346
Effects Associated with High Vitamin B6 Doses......Page 347
Congenital Disorders of Vitamin B6 Metabolism......Page 348
Deficiency Syndromes in Animals......Page 349
9. Vitamin B6 Toxicity......Page 350
Case 2......Page 351
Recommended Reading......Page 352
14. Biotin......Page 354
Bioavailability......Page 355
Synthesis by Intestinal Microflora......Page 356
Protein-Bound Biotin......Page 357
Recycling the Vitamin......Page 358
6. Metabolic Functions of Biotin......Page 359
Biotin Sensing......Page 360
Birth Defects......Page 361
Egg White Injury......Page 362
Deficiency Syndromes in Animals......Page 363
Subclinical Deficiency......Page 364
Case......Page 365
Recommended Reading......Page 366
1. The Significance of Pantothenic Acid......Page 368
Plasma and Erythrocytes......Page 369
CoA Synthesis......Page 371
General Functions......Page 372
CoA......Page 373
Other Outcomes......Page 374
Deficiency Signs in Animals......Page 375
Case Questions and Exercises......Page 376
Recommended Reading......Page 377
16. Folate......Page 378
Stability......Page 379
Bioavailability......Page 380
Deconjugation of Polyglutamyl Folates......Page 381
Passive Diffusion into the Enterocyte......Page 382
Free in Plasma......Page 383
Tissue Distribution......Page 384
5. Metabolism of Folate......Page 385
Methyl-Folate Trap......Page 386
Catabolism......Page 387
Polymorphisms of Enzymes in Folate Metabolism......Page 388
Nucleotide Metabolism......Page 389
DNA Methylation......Page 390
Neural Tube Defects (NTDs)......Page 391
Other Birth Defects......Page 393
Folate and Homocysteinemia......Page 394
Effects of Folate Supplementation......Page 395
Homocysteine Hypothesis Turned Controversy......Page 396
Immune Function......Page 397
Bone Health......Page 398
Other Drugs......Page 399
General Signs of Folate Deficiency......Page 400
Deficiency Signs in Humans......Page 401
Case......Page 402
Recommended Reading......Page 403
17. Vitamin B12......Page 406
Distribution in Foods......Page 407
Protein Binding......Page 408
Active Transport......Page 409
Transcobalamin Receptor......Page 410
Distribution in Tissues......Page 411
Congenital Disorders of Vitamin B12 Metabolism......Page 412
Methylmalonyl-CoA Mutase......Page 413
DNA Methylation......Page 414
Cognition......Page 415
Hearing Loss......Page 416
Malabsorption......Page 417
Loss of Gastric Parietal Cell Function......Page 418
General Signs of Deficiency......Page 419
Distinguishing Deficiencies of Vitamin B12 and Folate......Page 420
Case......Page 421
Recommended Reading......Page 422
18. Quasi-Vitamins......Page 424
Limitations of Traditional Designations of Vitamins......Page 425
Distribution in Foods and Feedstuffs......Page 426
Transport and Cellular Uptake......Page 427
Oxidation......Page 429
Conditions of Need......Page 430
Neurologic Function......Page 431
Absorption......Page 432
Biosynthesis......Page 433
Mitchondrial Fatty Acid Shuttle......Page 434
Mammals......Page 435
Humans......Page 436
Diabetes......Page 437
Male Reproductive Health......Page 438
Dietary Sources......Page 439
Transport......Page 440
Fates of myo-Inositol......Page 441
Metabolic Functions......Page 442
5. Pyrroloquinoline Quinone......Page 443
Conditions of Need......Page 444
Biosynthesis......Page 445
Conditions of Need......Page 446
Cardiovascular Health......Page 447
Ubiquitous Plant Metabolites......Page 448
Antioxidant Activity......Page 449
Cardiovascular Health......Page 450
Neurologic Health......Page 451
Dietary Sources......Page 452
Absorption......Page 453
Lutein and Zeaxanthin......Page 454
Lutein and Zeaxanthin......Page 455
Safety......Page 456
Dietary Sources......Page 457
Conditions of Need......Page 458
“Vitamin B15”......Page 459
14. Questions of Semantics......Page 460
Recommended Reading......Page 461
III: Using Current Knowledge of the Vitamins......Page 464
Vitamin Content Data......Page 466
Core Foods for Vitamins......Page 467
Vitamins in Human Diets......Page 470
Sources of Inaccuracy......Page 471
Environmental Effects......Page 472
Tissue Variation......Page 475
Accommodating Variation in Vitamin Contents of Foods and Feedstuffs......Page 476
Milling Losses......Page 477
Processing Losses......Page 478
Availability of Purified Vitamins......Page 479
Addition of Vitamins to Foods......Page 480
Vitamin Intakes from Foods......Page 481
6. Biofortification......Page 482
7. Vitamin Labeling of Foods......Page 483
Vitamin Supplements......Page 485
Losses of Vitamins from Feedstuffs and Finished Feeds......Page 487
Vitamin Premixes for Animal Feeds......Page 490
Stabilities of Vitamins in Feeds......Page 491
Recommended Reading......Page 493
1. General Aspects of Nutritional Assessment......Page 494
Dietary Assessment......Page 495
Available Biomarkers of Vitamin Status......Page 496
Interpreting Biomarker Data......Page 497
Vitamins in US Food Supply......Page 499
Global Malnutrition......Page 503
Other Vitamin Shortages......Page 506
Recommended Reading......Page 507
21. Quantifying Vitamin Needs......Page 508
Determining Nutrient Requirements......Page 509
Developing Vitamin Allowances......Page 510
Differences between Requirements and Allowances......Page 511
Applications of RDAs......Page 512
The RDA Concept......Page 513
New Paradigms for Nutrition......Page 514
RDAs......Page 515
The DRIs......Page 516
Public and Private Information......Page 519
Recommended Reading......Page 524
Clinical Conditions Requiring Elevated Doses......Page 526
Vitamin A......Page 527
Acute Toxicity......Page 528
Vitamin D......Page 531
Vitamin C......Page 532
Vitamin B6......Page 533
Quantifying Safe Intakes......Page 534
Recommended Reading......Page 537
Appendix A: Current and Obsolete Designations of Vitamins (Bolded) and Other Vitamin-Like Factors......Page 538
Appendix B: Original Reports for Case Studies......Page 542
Appendix C: A Core of Current Vitamin Literature......Page 544
Appendix D: Vitamin Contents of Foods (units per 100g edible portion)......Page 552
Appendix E: Vitamin Content of Feedstuffs (units per kg)......Page 582
Index......Page 586