The Treatment of Pharmaceutical Wastewater: Innovative Technologies and the Adaptation of Treatment Systems

Front Cover
The Treatment of Pharmaceutical Wastewater: Innovative Technologies and the Adaptation of Treatment Systems
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Introduction: Occurrences, sources, and methods of pharmaceutical wastewater treatment
	1. General introduction
	2. Occurrences and sources
	3. Sources of pharmaceuticals
		3.1. Occurrences of pharmaceuticals in India
	4. Analytical techniques used to determine pharmaceutical compounds
	5. Toxicological effect of pharmaceuticals
	6. Classical methods of pharmaceutical wastewater treatment
		6.1. Physicochemical methods
			6.1.1. Coagulation and flocculation
			6.1.2. Sedimentation
		6.2. Biological methods
			6.2.1. Constructed wastelands
			6.2.2. Activated sludge treatment
			6.2.3. Vermicomposting
			6.2.4. Bioaugmentation
			6.2.5. Biotransformation
	7. Conclusions
	References
Chapter 2: Current situation of pharmaceutical wastewater around the globe
	1. Introduction
	2. Characteristics of pharmaceutical wastewater
	3. Source and occurrence of pharmaceuticals in water
	4. Source, occurrence, and fate of pharmaceuticals in the environment
	5. Health hazards of discharged pharmaceuticals
	6. Pharmaceutical wastewater treatment options
		6.1. Conventional methods
			6.1.1. Coagulation
			6.1.2. Flocculation
			6.1.3. Sedimentation
			6.1.4. Conventional activated sludge
			6.1.5. Membrane bioreactor
			6.1.6. Constructed wetland
		6.2. Advanced treatment methods
			6.2.1. Activated carbon as adsorbent
			6.2.2. Graphene-based adsorption
			6.2.3. Carbon nanotubes as adsorbent
			6.2.4. Membrane filtration
			6.2.5. Advanced oxidation processes
				6.2.5.1. Advanced oxidation processes involving hydroxyl radicals
				6.2.5.2. Ozonation
				6.2.5.3. Photocatalytic oxidation
				6.2.5.4. Fenton-based advanced oxidation processes
				6.2.5.5. Persulfate-based advanced oxidation processes
	7. Hospital wastewater management in developed countries
		7.1. United States
		7.2. Italy
		7.3. Denmark
		7.4. France
		7.5. United Kingdom
		7.6. Australia
	8. Hospital wastewater management in developing countries
		8.1. India
		8.2. China
		8.3. Africa
		8.4. Malaysia
		8.5. Brazil
		8.6. Mexico
	9. Conclusions
	Conflict of interest
	References
	Further reading
Chapter 3: Recent trends in graphene-based materials for pharmaceuticals wastewater treatment
	1. Introduction
	2. Graphene-based materials
		2.1. Graphene, graphene oxide (GO), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO)
		2.2. Functionalized forms of graphene
			2.2.1. Graphene polymer composites
			2.2.2. Graphene nanoparticle composites
			2.2.3. Graphene CNT composites
	3. Removal of pharmaceuticals using graphene-based materials
	4. Knowledge gaps
	5. Conclusions
	References
Chapter 4: Fate of common pharmaceuticals in the environment
	1. Introduction
	2. Common PhACs in the environment and their physiochemical properties
		2.1. Antibiotics
		2.2. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs
		2.3. Lipid regulators
		2.4. Beta-blockers
		2.5. Endocrine disrupting compounds
		2.6. Other pharmaceuticals
	3. Metabolism and transformation processes
	4. Occurrence of common pharmaceuticals in the environment
		4.1. Occurrence in wastewater treatment plants
		4.2. Occurrence in aquatic environments
		4.3. Occurrence in soil
	5. Fate of common pharmaceuticals in the environment
		5.1. Fate in wastewater treatment plants
			5.1.1. Conventional wastewater treatment
		5.2. Fate in the aquatic environment
			5.2.1. Partitioning
			5.2.2. Hydrolysis and photolysis
		5.3. Fate in soils
	6. Conclusions
	References
Chapter 5: Analytical techniques for the detection of pharmaceuticals in the environment
	1. Introduction
	2. Preanalysis protocols
		2.1. Sampling
		2.2. Preservation
		2.3. Pretreatment (clean-up)
			2.3.1. Liquid-liquid extraction
			2.3.2. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction
			2.3.3. Solid-phase extraction
			2.3.4. Methodology of solid-phase extraction and clean-up
		2.4. Pretreatment and extraction of solid samples
	3. Analytical techniques
		3.1. Chromatography
			3.1.1. Liquid chromatography
			3.1.2. Gas chromatography
		3.2. Chromatography detectors
		3.3. Electrochemical sensor
	4. Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6: Treatment innovation using solar/UV
	1. Introduction
	2. Solar radiation
	3. Advanced oxidation processes
		3.1. UV/H2O2
		3.2. UV/O3
		3.3. UV/chlorine
		3.4. Photo-Fenton and related processes
		3.5. Heterogeneous photocatalysis
		3.6. Combined methods
	4. Summary
	References
Chapter 7: Treatment innovation using biological methods in combination with physical treatment methods
	1. Introduction
	2. Pharmaceutical wastewater: Existing contaminants, toxicity, and effects
		2.1. Toxicity
		2.2. Effect
	3. Pharmaceutical wastewater treatment
		3.1. Biological treatment: Technologies and crisis
		3.2. Treatment technologies
		3.3. Treatment by strains isolated from PWW
		3.4. Crisis: Regeneration of ARGs during biological treatment
	4. Hybrid technologies
		4.1. Membrane technology
		4.2. Advanced oxidation process coupled to biological process
	5. Conclusions
	References
Chapter 8: Application of hybrid advanced oxidation and adsorption processes for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment
	1. Introduction
	2. Purification of pharmaceutical wastewaters by advanced oxidation processes
		2.1. Photocatalytic oxidation
		2.2. Fenton oxidation
		2.3. Ozonation
		2.4. Electrochemical oxidation
	3. Adsorption as a method of pharmaceutical substances removing
	4. Hybrid oxidation and adsorption processes
		4.1. Photocatalysis and adsorption
		4.2. Fenton oxidation and adsorption
		4.3. Ozonation and adsorption
	5. Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 9: Microalgae-based bioremediation of pharmaceuticals wastewater
	1. Introduction
	2. Removal mechanisms of pharmaceutical contaminants (PCs) by microalgae
		2.1. Bioadsorption
		2.2. Bioaccumulation
		2.3. Biodegradation (biotransformation)
		2.4. Photobiodegradation
		2.5. Volatilization
	3. Factors influencing the removal of PCs
		3.1. Microalgae growth condition
		3.2. Microalgae species
	4. Different approaches for the removal of PCs by microalgae phytoremediation
		4.1. Conventional approaches
			4.1.1. Open culture techniques
			4.1.2. Close culture techniques
			4.1.3. Suspended culture techniques
			4.1.4. Immobilized culture techniques
		4.2. Novel approaches
			4.2.1. Acclimation of microalgae
			4.2.2. Cometabolism of microalgae
	5. Integrated processes for removal of PCs
		5.1. Integration of microalgae-based biotechnologies and advanced oxidation processes
		5.2. Integration of microalgae-based biotechnologies and constructed wetlands
		5.3. Integration of microalgae-based biotechnologies and microbial fuel cells
		5.4. Integration of microalgae-based biotechnologies and conventional activated sludge
		5.5. Integration of microalgae-based biotechnologies and membrane photobioreactor
	6. Concluding remarks and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 10: An overview of recent progress in membrane-based treatment for pharmaceutical wastewaters
	1. Introduction
	2. Adverse effects on human health
	3. Membrane-based separation processes (MBSPs)
		3.1. Ultrafiltration
		3.2. Microfiltration
		3.3. Nanofiltration
		3.4. Reverse osmosis
		3.5. Forward osmosis
		3.6. Electrodialysis
		3.7. Hybrid membrane-based separation processes
	4. Conclusions
	References
Chapter 11: Sustainable and eco-friendly treatment of pharmaceuticals wastewater
	1. Introduction
	2. Pharmaceutical wastewater characteristics
	3. Conventional pharmaceutical wastewater treatments
		3.1. Membrane bioreactor (MBR)
		3.2. Activated carbon
		3.3. Coagulation and sedimentation
	4. Advanced pharmaceutical wastewater treatment
		4.1. Membrane and membrane-integrated hybrid systems
		4.2. Adsorption
		4.3. Advanced oxidation processes
		4.4. Photocatalytic oxidation
	5. Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
Chapter 12: Natural polymer-based sustainable adsorbents for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment
	1. Introduction
	2. Biopolymers at a glance: Classification and mechanisms of PhCs adsorption
	3. Cross-linked biopolymers: Especially cross-linked chitosan
		3.1. Physical cross-linking
		3.2. Chemical crosslinking
	4. Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 13: Innovative and eco-friendly technologies for the upgradation of pharmaceutical wastewater treatment proc
	1. Introduction
	2. Strategies for removal of pharmaceutical products from wastewater
		2.1. Removal by adsorption
		2.2. Activated carbon
		2.3. Agricultural waste
		2.4. Water-contaminated waste-based adsorbents with pharmaceutical
		2.5. Adsorption of antibiotics
		2.6. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
		2.7. Microwave-assisted adsorption of pharmaceutical waste
		2.8. Other sources of adsorbent for pharmaceutical and personal care products
	3. Bioremediation
	4. Membranes separation
		4.1. Membrane bioreactor technology (MBR)
		4.2. Enzymatic membrane reactors (EMRs)
	5. Removal of pharmaceuticals in advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)
		5.1. Electrochemical treatment
		5.2. Ozonation
		5.3. Fenton and photo-Fenton
		5.4. Sonolysis
	6. Constructed wetlands (CWs)
	7. Treatment of pharmaceutical residues in wastewater
	8. Conclusions
	References
Chapter 14: Biohazardous effect associated with various pharma-effluent discharge in a biotic system
	1. Introduction
	2. Types of effluent exposures, their sources, and impact
		2.1. Heavy metal discharge
			2.1.1. Challenges in heavy metal pollutant removal
		2.2. Agricultural wastes
			2.2.1. Sources
			2.2.2. Effects of agricultural wastes on the environment
			2.2.3. Challenges in the removal of agricultural wastes
		2.3. Pharmaceutical wastes
			2.3.1. Source
			2.3.2. Health impacts due to the discharge of drugs in biotic system
			2.3.3. Challenges in pharmaceutical wastes removal
		2.4. Microplastics
			2.4.1. Sources
			2.4.2. Effects of microplastics in environment
			2.4.3. Challenges in impact assessment of microplastics
	3. Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index
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