The sound reinforcement handbook 2nd ed

PREFACE......Page 4
ACKNOWLEDQEMENTS......Page 5
SOUND REINFORCEMENT HANDBOOK TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 6
SOUND REINFORCEMENT HANDBOOK LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS......Page 10
1-1 Sound waves......Page 14
1-3 Phase......Page 15
1-4 Adding sine waves......Page 16
3. A conceptual model of a sound system......Page 17
5. Output transducers......Page 18
6. A practical model of a sound system......Page 19
1. A definition......Page 22
1-1 Basic specification methods......Page 23
1-2 Octave relationships and measurements......Page 24
2-1 Electronic circuits and cables......Page 25
2-3 Loudspeakers......Page 27
3-2 The singing voice and musical instruments......Page 28
3-3 Harmonics......Page 29
4. Effect of acoustical factors......Page 30
1-1 A mathematical definition of the dB......Page 32
1-2 Relative versus absolute levels......Page 34
2-2 dBu......Page 35
2-3 dBv and dBv......Page 36
2-5 Relating dBv, dBu and dBm to specifications......Page 37
3-1 dB SPL......Page 38
3-2 dB PWL......Page 39
4. What is rms?......Page 40
5. Volume, level and gain......Page 41
6-1 Equal loudness contours and phons......Page 42
6-2 What we can deduce from equal loudness contours......Page 43
6-3 Loudness compensation......Page 44
1-3 The electrical dynamic range of the sound system......Page 46
1-4 The acoustical dynamic range of the system......Page 47
2-1 A definition......Page 48
2-2 Why headroom is important......Page 49
3-2 What happens when the sound system is inadequate?......Page 50
3-3 How to fit wide program dynamics into a sound system with limited dynamic range......Page 52
3-4 How much headroom is adequate?......Page 55
1. The inverse square law......Page 56
1-1 Inverse square law calculations......Page 57
2-1 Wind......Page 58
2-3 Humidity......Page 59
3-1 Maximum gain (available gain before feedback)......Page 60
3-2 Using directional microphones and loudspeakers......Page 62
1. Boundaries......Page 66
1-1 The absorption coefficient......Page 67
2. Standing waves......Page 68
2-1 Standing waves in a room......Page 69
3. Reverberation......Page 70
4. Critical distance......Page 71
4-1 Implications for sound reinforcement......Page 73
1. General discussion......Page 74
2. Symbolic conventions......Page 76
3. Notational conventions......Page 79
4. Analysis of simple block diagrams......Page 80
5. Summation......Page 83
1-2 Examples of specs that should be doubted......Page 84
2-1 Distinguishing frequency response, frequency range, and power bandwidth......Page 85
2-3 What is a good frequency response spec?......Page 87
3-1 What is noise?......Page 88
3-3 Pink noise......Page 89
3-4 Shaping the noise......Page 90
3-6 Specifying output noise......Page 91
3-7 Other types of noise......Page 93
4-1 What is harmonic distortion?......Page 94
4-2 Measuring harmonic distortion?......Page 95
4-3 Factors affecting harmonic distortion specifications......Page 97
5-1 Measuring IM distortion......Page 98
5-4 Transient intermodulation distortion......Page 99
6. Input and output impedances......Page 100
6-1-1 Output impedance......Page 101
6-1-2 Input impedance......Page 102
6-2 The implications of impedance mismatches......Page 103
6-3 Impedance and frequency......Page 104
7-1 General classification of levels......Page 105
7-2 Expressing the wide power range of a sound system......Page 106
7-3-2 Overloading an output......Page 107
7-4-1 Hi-fi output to pro equipment input......Page 108
8. Crosstalk......Page 109
8-3 Specification of crosstalk......Page 110
9. Filter slope rates and turnover frequencies......Page 112
10. Squre wave tests......Page 113
10-1 Oscilloscopes......Page 114
11. Miscellany......Page 116
1-1 Calibrated mics vs ears......Page 118
1-2 Average ears vs \"golden ears\"......Page 119
2-1 Test signals versus program material......Page 120
2-2 Location and number of test microphones......Page 122
2-3 Dynamic range......Page 123
3. Static vs dynamic tests......Page 124
4. Masking effects and equipment imteraction......Page 125
1-2 Condenser......Page 126
1-4 Ribbon......Page 127
1-5 Carbon......Page 128
2-1 Hand-held......Page 129
2-3 Lavalier......Page 130
2-5 pressure response......Page 131
2-7 Parabolic......Page 132
2-9 Noise cancelling microphones......Page 133
3-1-2 Cardioid......Page 134
3-1-4 Supercardioid......Page 136
3-2 Frequency response......Page 137
3-4 Transient response......Page 138
3-6 Overload......Page 139
3-8 Balanced and unbalanced connections......Page 140
4-2 Shock mounts......Page 142
4-4 Effect of the number of open microphones......Page 143
4-6 Stereo recording......Page 144
5-2 Who uses wireless intercoms?......Page 145
5-4 Types of wireless intercoms......Page 146
5-5 Frequencies used......Page 148
5-7 Evaluating and selecting a system......Page 149
5-8 Conclusions......Page 150
5-9 Glossary of wireless intercom terms......Page 151
6-3 What is the background of wireless mics?......Page 152
6-4 Radio frequencies used......Page 153
6-5 Technical problems......Page 154
6-6 Solutions......Page 155
6-8 Compatibillty of wireless mic systems......Page 158
6-10 Evaluating wireless microphone systems......Page 159
6-11 Conclusions......Page 160
6-12 Glossary of wireless microphone terms......Page 161
1. General discussion......Page 162
2-1 What are they, and what do they do?......Page 165
2-3 Phono preamps......Page 166
3. Mixers......Page 167
4-2 How mixes differ:pre＆post fader considerations......Page 168
4-3 Panning, summing, and master faders......Page 170
5-2 Signal-to-noise ratio......Page 175
5-3 Maximum voltage gain......Page 177
5-4 Headroom......Page 178
5-5 Indicators......Page 179
6. Transformer isolated versus electronically balanced inputs＆outputs......Page 180
6-2 Discrete versus IC differential amps......Page 181
6-3 The case for the transformer......Page 182
6-5 More on transformers......Page 183
7-1 Why does gain have to be manipulated? a review of sound levels fed to the console......Page 185
7-3 Input attenuation or padding......Page 186
7-4-2 Power amp overdrive......Page 187
8. Interface with sub-mixers......Page 188
9-2 How is a monitor system set up?......Page 191
9-3 Why a monitor console is preferable to a mix from the main house console......Page 192
9-5 Other benefits of a separate monitor console......Page 193
9-6 Polarity (phase) reversal as a tool to fight feedback......Page 194
10. Microphone splitting......Page 195
10-1 The splitter transformer......Page 196
10-2 Additional isolation for high-noise environments......Page 197
10-3 Splitting a mic without a transformer......Page 198
11-2 Polarity reversal (or \"phase\" reversal)......Page 199
11-3 Ringing out a monitor system......Page 200
12-1 Additional monitor console placement factors......Page 202
12-2 Main house mixing console placement......Page 203
2-1 Voltage, resistance and current......Page 206
2-2 Electrical power......Page 207
2-3 Ohm\'s law chart......Page 208
2-4 Electrical power and amplifier gain......Page 209
3. Power ratings of amplifiers......Page 210
3-2 Power bandwidth......Page 211
3-3 Slew rate and output power......Page 212
3-4 Bridged operation......Page 213
3-5 The effect of clipping......Page 214
4. The relationship between amplifier power and SPL......Page 215
5-1 Interpreting loudspeaker power ratings......Page 217
5-2 Impedance calculations......Page 218
5-3 Constant-voltage distribution systems......Page 221
1. Introduction......Page 222
2-1 Electromagnetic transduction......Page 223
2-2 Piezoelectric transduction......Page 224
3. Low frequency drivers......Page 225
3-1 Directinal characteristics of cone drivers......Page 226
4. Low frequency enclosures......Page 227
4-1 Vented enclosures......Page 228
4-2 Low frequency horns......Page 229
5. High frequency drivers......Page 231
6. High frequency horns......Page 232
7-1 General model......Page 235
7-2 Passive, high level crossovers......Page 236
7-3-1 Headroom......Page 238
7-3-5 Biamp or triamp versus conventional system......Page 240
8. Full-range loudspeakers......Page 241
8-1 effect of boundary conditions......Page 242
9-1 Frequeny response......Page 243
9-2 Power handling......Page 244
9-3 Sensitivity......Page 245
9-4 impedance......Page 246
9-5 Directional characteristics......Page 247
10-2 Intermodulation distortion......Page 249
10-3 Mechanical defects......Page 250
11-1 Manufacturing defects......Page 251
11-2 IMproper operation......Page 252
11-3 Failures due to other components in the signal chain......Page 254
Section 14. Signal Processing Equipment......Page 256
1-2 Common tone controls......Page 257
1-3 Multi-band conventional equalizers......Page 259
1-5 Parametric equalizers......Page 261
1-6 Graphic equalizers......Page 264
1-8 Tuning a sound system with graphic (or paragraphic) equalization......Page 267
1-9 High pass and low pass filters......Page 269
2. Reverberation and delay......Page 272
2-1 Reverb chambers......Page 274
2-3 Spring-type reverbs......Page 275
2-5 Digital reverberation......Page 277
2-6 Tape delay......Page 279
2-7 Digital delay......Page 280
2-8 Analog delay......Page 282
3-1 General discussion......Page 283
3-2 How compressor/limiters work......Page 284
3-3 Setup adjustments......Page 285
4-1 General......Page 287
4-2 Noise gate applications......Page 288
4-3 Expander applications......Page 289
5-1 Flanging......Page 290
5-3 What to look for......Page 291
6. Exciters......Page 292
1. The importance of good cables......Page 294
2-1 Electrosttic and electrmagnetic shielding......Page 295
2-2 Cable self-capacitance......Page 296
2-3  Single and dual conductor shielded cables......Page 297
2-4 Strain relief......Page 300
2-5 Unshielded cables and speaker cables......Page 301
2-6 Multicore audio cables (\"snakes\")......Page 302
3-2 Phone plugs......Page 304
3-3 Phono (pin) connectors......Page 310
3-4 XLR connectors......Page 312
1. The volt-ohm meter......Page 316
2. The sine wave oscillator......Page 318
3. The oscilloscope......Page 320
4. The phase tester......Page 322
5. The sound pressure level meter......Page 323
6. The real-time analyzer......Page 324
8. Summary......Page 325
1-1 Sound reproduction systems......Page 326
1-2 Sound reinforcement systems......Page 327
2. Developing a logical system architecture......Page 328
2-1 Functional grouping......Page 329
2-2 System examples......Page 330
3-1 Signal levels and impedance......Page 338
3-2 Unbalanced and balanced connections......Page 339
4. Grounding......Page 340
4-1 Why is proper grounding important?......Page 341
4-2 Ground loops......Page 342
4-3 Basic grounding techniques......Page 343
5-1 Properties and functions of signal transformers......Page 346
5-2 Some practical applications......Page 348
6-1 Verify the correct mains voltage......Page 350
6-2 Ensure there is a good earth ground......Page 351
6-4 Improperly wired AC outlets: lifted grounds......Page 352
6-5 Improperly wired AC outlets: lifted neutral......Page 353
6-8 Power source integrity......Page 354
7. Configuring equipment racks......Page 355
8-2 Undesired signals......Page 356
1-1 The program material......Page 360
2. Directional control......Page 361
2-1 Widenind dispersion......Page 362
2-2 Narrowing dispersion......Page 363
3-1 Directionality and coverage......Page 364
3-3 Outdoor sound systems......Page 366
3-5 Loundspeaker placement indoors......Page 367
4-2 Connectors......Page 368
4-3 Polarity of connections......Page 370
5-1 Choice of crossover frequency and slope......Page 371
5-2 Setting up the loudspeaker system......Page 373
5-3 Testing and optimizing the system......Page 374
5-4 High frequency driver protection networks......Page 376
6. Use of fill systems......Page 377
7-1 Single loudspeakers......Page 381
7-2 Multiple loudspeaker systems......Page 382
7-3 Room equalization......Page 383
1. Interface specifications......Page 384
1-1 Hardware configuration......Page 385
1-2 Data structure......Page 386
1-4 System messages......Page 387
2. Control of musical instruments......Page 388
2-1 MIDI modes......Page 390
2-2 Controllers......Page 391
2-3 Patch editor/librarian functions......Page 392
2-4 MIDI implementation charts......Page 393
3-1 Basic theory......Page 395
3-2 Channels＆ tracks......Page 396
3-4 Typical sequencer features......Page 398
3-4-3 Common editing features......Page 399
4-2 MIDI mergers......Page 400
4-5 SysEx data storage......Page 401
5-1 Instrument patch changes......Page 402
5-3 Console functions......Page 403
6-1 Lack of response......Page 404
6-3 MIDI feedback......Page 405
6-4 MIDI time delays......Page 406
1-1 Basic theory......Page 408
1-2 Pulse methods......Page 409
1-3 Timepiece methods......Page 410
2-1 Signal structure......Page 411
2-2 Frame rates and line references......Page 413
2-3 Longitudinal, vertical interval and visible time code......Page 414
2-4-2 Slave code offset......Page 415
2-4-6 Event triggers......Page 416
2-5-1 Printing SMPTE time code......Page 417
2-6 SMPTE-to-MIDI conversion......Page 418
3. Edit decision......Page 419
A.2 Simple Logs (and Antilogs) to the Base 10......Page 422
A.3 Less Obvious Logs to The Base 10......Page 423
A.4 Mathematical Properties of Logs......Page 424
A.5 One More Look At Logs and Decibels......Page 425
Index......Page 426
Colophon......Page 430