The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, AD 226-363: A Documentary History (Ad 226-363 : a Documentary History)

Book Cover......Page 1
Half-Title......Page 2
Title......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Contents......Page 5
Maps......Page 7
Notes on the sources......Page 8
List of abbreviations......Page 14
Foreword......Page 18
Acknowledgements......Page 21
Map 1 The Near East in the third century......Page 23
(1)  Outline of Romano-Persian relations (224–363)......Page 25
(2)  The problem of the sources......Page 27
(3)  The structure of the book......Page 29
1.1.1.  The lineage, parentage, and childhood of Ardashir (r. 226–241/2)......Page 32
1.1.2.  The revolt of Ardashir (c. 208–224)......Page 33
1.1.5.  Ardashir’s invasion of Roman territory and his demand for the restitution of the Achaemenid possessions in Europe......Page 37
1.2.1.  The reply of Alexander Severus to Ardashir......Page 38
1.2.3.  Alexander Severus’ preparation for his campaign and his speech before the troops......Page 39
1.2.5.  Suppression of mutinies by Alexander Severus......Page 41
1.3.1.  Visit of Alexander Severus to Palmyra (c. 230/1)......Page 43
1.3.3.  The Persian campaign of Alexander Severus (231–3)......Page 44
1.3.4.  Road repair in Mesopotamia, near the Tigris (231/2)......Page 48
1.4.1.  Causes of Alexander Severus’ withdrawal from the East......Page 49
1.4.3.  The triumphal return to Rome of Alexander Severus and his speech to the Senate (25 September 233)......Page 50
1.4.4.  The Persian attack of 238/9......Page 51
1.5.1.  The fall of Hatra to the Persians (240)31......Page 52
2.1.3.  Description of his Empire......Page 53
2.2.1.  The death of Gordian: (b) the Roman view9......Page 54
2.2.3.  Philip’s treaty with Shapur I......Page 62
2.2.4.  The accession of Philip and general political instability in the East......Page 63
2.3.1.  Julius Priscus placed in charge of the East......Page 64
2.3.4.  Sepulchral inscription of a veteran of Legio VIII Augusta in Syria......Page 65
3.1.3.  The murder of Khosrov II of Armenia and flight of Trdat (Tiridates) to the Roman court(?)......Page 66
3.1.4.  Shapur’s second campaign against the Roman Empire (252)......Page 67
3.1.5.  Antioch betrayed by Mariades (or Kyriades)22 to Shapur I (253?)23......Page 68
3.2.1.  Some incidents related to the fall of Antioch (253? or 260?)......Page 70
3.2.2.  A Persian column defeated at Emesa (?)......Page 71
3.2.4.  Repair to the walls of Batnae by a Prefect of Osrhoene (after 256?)......Page 72
3.2.6.  Shapur’s third campaign against the Roman Empire (260?): (a) The Persian view......Page 73
3.3.1.  The third campaign of Shapur and the capture of Valerian: (b) The Roman and Byzantine view46......Page 74
3.3.4.  Fulvius Macrianus refused to send help to Valerian......Page 80
3.3.5.  Ballista rallied Roman stragglers and inflicted defeats on Persians in Lykaonia......Page 81
3.4.2.  The settlement of Roman prisoners by Shapur in Persian territory......Page 82
4.1.3.  Unsuccessful attempt by Septimius Odaenathus to make a treaty with Shapur I......Page 83
4.2.1.  Dedication to Julius Aurelius Oge, strategos of Palmyra (254)......Page 84
4.3.1.  Sack of Nehardea by Odaenathus (?) (between 259 and 263)......Page 85
4.3.2.  The victories of Septimius Odaenathus over the Persians and Roman pretenders (c. 262–c. 266)......Page 86
4.3.4.  Dedication to Septimius Herodianus for victory over the Persians in Syria (date unknown).......Page 91
4.4.1.  Dedications to Septimius Vorodes,18 Procurator Augusti ducenarius......Page 92
4.4.3.  Odaenathus’ devotion to his son Herodes......Page 93
4.5.1.  Death of Odaenathus (c 266/7)......Page 94
4.5.3.  The character and ambition of Zenobia......Page 96
4.5.4.  Zenobia held power in the name of her sons after the death of Odaenathus......Page 97
4.6.1.  Predominance of Palmyrene power in the East—defeat of Heraclianus (c. 268)......Page 98
4.6.4.  The invasion of Arabia by Zenobia......Page 99
4.6.5.  Expansion of Palmyrene power into Egypt (c. 270)25......Page 100
4.7.3.  Dedications to Vaballathus Athenodorus found on milestones near Bostra......Page 101
4.7.4.  Aurelian marched against Zenobia, the recovery of Tyana (271/2)......Page 102
4.8.2.  Aurelian defeated the Palmyrenes at Immae and recovered Antioch (272).......Page 104
4.8.3.  Aurelian marched on Palmyra, attempts at negotiation (Spring, 272)......Page 107
4.8.4.  The siege of Palmyra, the escape and capture of Zenobia......Page 109
4.8.5.  Dialogue between Aurelian and Zenobia after her capture......Page 110
4.9.1.  Execution of the supporters of Zenobia......Page 111
4.9.4.  The revolt of Palmyra under Septimius Apsaeus and its final destruction by Aurelian (c. 272)......Page 112
4.10.2.  Firmus, friend and ally of Zenobia, seized Egypt after her defeat (c. 272)......Page 114
4.10.3.  Zenobia was paraded in Aurelian’s triumph in Rome (274)......Page 116
4.10.4.  Aurelian’s high regard for Zenobia......Page 117
4.11.1.  Zenobia’s subsequent life in Rome and her descendants......Page 118
4.11.4.  The exploits of Odaenathus recalled by Libanius (c. 391)......Page 119
4.11.5.  Request by Libanius for a copy of the oration on Odaenathus by Longinus (c. 393)......Page 120
5  From Probus to Diocletian......Page 121
5.1.6.  The Persian Expedition of Carus, his initial success and his death (283)......Page 122
5.2.1.  Conflicting accounts of the achievements of Numerianus16 and Carinus, the sons of Carus......Page 126
5.2.2.  A story associated with the Armenian (Persian?) war of Carus or Carinus......Page 128
5.2.5.  Diocletian fortifies Circesium and reorganizes the eastern frontier (287?)......Page 130
5.3.1.  Diocletian’s campaign against the Saracens (? May/June, 290)......Page 131
5.3.4.  Renewal of hostilities by Narses (c. 293).......Page 132
5.3.5.  The Persian Campaigns of Diocletian and Galerius (296–298)......Page 133
5.4.1.  Assuristan raided by Armenians(?)......Page 138
5.4.2.  Negotiations between Galerius and the envoy of Narses......Page 139
5.4.3.  The peace settlement between Diocletian and Narses (298 or 299)......Page 140
5.5.2.  The victories of Diocletian and Galerius as recalled by Eumenius54......Page 141
5.5.3.  Manichaeans accused of being a pro-Persian fifth-column (c. 302)55......Page 142
5.5.5.  General efforts by Diocletian to strengthen the eastern frontier (287ff.)59......Page 143
5.6.1.  A wayfarer’s appreciation of the improved provisions for travellers in the frontier regions (late 3rd or early 4th C.)......Page 145
6.1.1.  The birth and childhood of Shapur II......Page 150
6.1.5.  The Armenian campaign of Maximinus Daia (c. Nov., 312)......Page 151
6.1.6.  Formation of a mobile field army by Constantine (before 325)......Page 152
6.2.2.  Victory (?) of Constantine over Shapur II and provincial reorganization (date unknown)......Page 153
6.2.3.  The flight of Hormisdas to Rome (324?)10......Page 154
6.2.5.  Letter of Constantini the Great to Shapur II (after 324?)......Page 156
6.3.2.  The ‘lies of Metrodorus’ (326/7)......Page 158
6.3.4.  Narses, brother (?) of Shapur II, captured Amida but was killed in battle (at Narasara?) (c. 336?)......Page 159
6.4.2.  Constantine’s preparation for war against the Persians and his death (22 May, 337)......Page 160
6.4.3.  Hope for Roman victory as expressed by a Christian writer in Persia (c. 337)......Page 166
6.4.4.  The career of a descendant of a Roman prisoner of war in the Persian Empire......Page 167
7.1.2.  Unrest in Armenia as a consequence of the murder of Hannibalianus (?)......Page 169
7.1.3.  The first siege of Nisibis (337 or 338)......Page 170
7.1.5.  Constantius’ return to the East......Page 175
7.2.1.  Treaty between Constantius and the Arabs (338?)12......Page 176
7.2.3.  Roman cavalry equipment strengthened by Constantius......Page 177
7.2.4.  Constantius arrived at the Eastern Frontier but was unable to bring the enemy into open battle (338/9)......Page 178
7.2.5.  The Persian war used as an excuse by Arian leaders for not appearing before Pope Julius who had summoned them (c. 338)......Page 179
7.3.1.  Dedication to Constantius who was on the point of embarking on his Persian campaign by a contemporary epitomator of the campaigns of Alexander and Trajan (before 340)......Page 180
7.3.3.  A Persian city was captured by Constantius on one of his forays into enemy territory (c. 343)......Page 182
7.3.4.  The battle of Singara (343 or 344)20......Page 183
7.4.2.  Constantius in Nisibis (May, 345)29......Page 191
7.4.5.  The second siege of Nisibis (346)......Page 192
7.5.2.  Constantius in Edessa (c. 346)......Page 193
7.5.5.  The third siege of Nisibis (350)33......Page 194
7.6.2.  Building inscriptions from the Syrian-Arabian frontier (350–353)......Page 206
7.6.4.  The Persian mailed cavalry (cataphracts) as described in contemporary fiction......Page 207
The prelude to war (357–359)......Page 209
The siege and fall of Amida (359)......Page 210
The aftermath of the fall of Amida (359–360)......Page 211
(B)  THE SOURCES (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER OF THEIR AUTHORS)......Page 212
From Antioch to Callinicum (5–27 March)......Page 225
From Callinicum to Maiozamalcha (April-mid-June)......Page 226
The Roman army at Seleucia/Coche/Ctesiphon......Page 228
Death of Julian (26 June)......Page 229
(B)  THE SOURCES (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER OF THEIR AUTHORS)......Page 230
Appendix 1  Select passages from sources in Arabic and New Persian......Page 261
Appendix 2  Select passages from Armenian historians......Page 281
(A)  Morning reports......Page 302
(B)  List of men and mounts......Page 305
(A)  Letter of a Persian official to Shapur......Page 306
(B)  Inscriptions from the Synagogue......Page 307
Appendix 4  Eastern victories in imperial titulature. From Alexander Severus to Constantius II (222–361)1......Page 309
Appendix 5  The frontier units according to the notitia dignitatum......Page 313
Notes......Page 320
Bibliography of secondary works......Page 369
POSTSCRIPT......Page 383
Important note on 6.2.1 (p. 146)......Page 384
Index of translated passages......Page 385
General index......Page 399