The Psychology of Police Deadly Force Encounters

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF POLICE DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS
	ABOUT THE AUTHOR
	FOREWORD
	PREFACE
	BOOKS BY LAURENCE MILLER, PhD
	CONTENTS
	THE PSYCHOLOGY OF POLICE DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS
		Part I DEADLY FORCE: FACTS AND FACTORS
			Chapter 1 OFFICER-INVOLVED SHOOTINGS AND DEADLY FORCE
				PATROL POLICING
				POLICE USE OF FORCE
					Police Attitudes Toward Use of Force
				OFFICER-INVOLVED SHOOTING
					Rates of Officer-Involved Shooting and other Use of Force
					Officers Ambushed and Killed
					Not Shooting: Officer Hesitates or Refrains
					What Is An “Armed” Suspect and What Is “Deadly” Force?
					Reasonable Force: A Reasonable Standard?
					Court Decisions on Reasonable Force
					Criteria for the Use of Deadly Force
				CONTINUUM OF FORCE
				HOW MUCH FORCE?
					Accuracy of Shooting
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
			Chapter 2 FACTORS MOST LIKELY TO LEAD TO A DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTER
				ENCOUNTER (SITUATIONAL) CHARACTERISTICS
					Low Information
					High-Speed Foot Chase or Automobile Pursuit
					Split-Second Syndrome, Mistake-of-Fact Shootings, and Bunch Shootings
					Deadly Force Used Against a Suspect Who Is Already Surrendering
					Officer Draws or Reholsters a Gun While Handcuffing a Suspect
					Use of Deadly Force to Prevent Subject’s Own Suicide
					Contact is Officer-Initiated, Not Citizen-Initiated
					Presence of Bystanders, Including Citizens and/or Other Officers
					Suspect Possesses A Weapon Or Object That Can Be Used As A Weapon
					Availability/Unavailability of Less-Lethal Weapons
					Arrest
				CITIZEN DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
					Race—Ethnicity
					Social Class
					Sex
					Age
				CITIZEN BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS
					Suspect Resists Command Given by Police Officer
					Suspect Shows Hostile Demeanor or Overly Aggressive Behavior Toward Officers
					Suspect Displays Suspicious or Threatening Behavior
					Citizen-Citizen Conflict
					Suspect is Intoxicated
					Suspect is Mentally Ill
				SUICIDE BY COP
					Suicide by Cop: Facts and Circumstances
					Suicide by Cop: Patterns and Motives
					Suicide by Cop: Police Response and Officer Reactions
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
			Chapter 3 POLICE OFFICER FACTORS IN THE USE OF FORCE AND DEADLY FORCE
				OFFICER DEMOGRAPHICS
					Officer Race/Ethnicity
					Officer Sex
					Officer Age and Experience
					Officer Education Level
				TYPES OF OFFICER MISCONDUCT
					Corrupt Cops
					Predicting Officer Misconduct
				OFFICER MISCONDUCT, USE OF FORCE, AND DEADLY FORCE
					Abuse of Authority Escalates to Deadly Confrontation
					Police Retaliate Against a Suspect for Endangering Officers or for Showing Contempt of Cop
					Improper Vehicle Operation
					Inadequate Training and Supervision of Officers
					Maintaining a Code of Silence in Failing to Report Peers’ Misconduct
					Burnout and the Use of Force
				WHY DO POLICE OFFICERS MISBEHAVE?
				INDIVIDUAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
				ATTITUDES
				PERSONALITY: TRAITS, TYPES AND DISORDERS
					Police Personality Typologies: The Big Five Model
					U.S. Department of Justice Psychological Model
					Police Psychiatrist Typology
					Police Personalities: Commonalities and Interactions
					Authoritative vs. Authoritarian: Andy vs. Barney
				PERSONALITY DISORDERS
					Borderline Personality Disorder
					Narcissistic Personality Disorder
					Antisocial Personality Disorder
					Avoidant Personality Disorder
					Dependent Personality Disorder
					Historic Personality Disorder
					Paranoid Personality Disorder
					Schizoid Personality Disorder
				POSITIVE QUALITIES AND TRAITS
				ORGANIZATION FACTORS: LAW ENFORCEMENT CULTURE
					Administrative and Departmental Factors
					Training and Supervision Issues
					Effective Policing: Proactive, Aggressive, or Abusive?
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
		Part II DEADLY FORCE: BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
			Chapter 4 DEADLY FORCE COGNITION I: PERCEPTION
				THE BRAIN’S EMERGENCY RESPONSE SYSTEM
				PERCEPTUAL, COGNITIVE, AND BEHAVIORAL DISTORTIONS DURING AN OIS/DFE
				TIME
				ATTENTION, CONCENTRATION, AND PERCEPTION
					Attention and the Brain
					Dimenstions of Attention
					Attention and Perception in Critical DFE Scenarios
				RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ATTENTIONAL, PERCEPTUAL, AND COGNITIVE PHENOMENA IN DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS
				DISSOCIATION AND AUTOMATIC RESPONDING
					Dimensions of Automaticity
					Automatic Responding and the Brain
				RECOGNITION-PRIMED DECISION MAKING
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
			Chapter 5 DEADLY FORCE COGNITION II: ACTION
				LEARNING, TRAINING, MEMORY, AND ACTION
				TO SHOOT OR NOT TO SHOOT: COGNITION AND ACTION
					Neuropsychology of Action and Reaction
					Reaction Time and Deadly Force
					Unintentional Discharges
					Shoot/Don’t Shoot Research
					Stop Shooting
					Stop Shooting, by the Numbers: The Cognitive Psychology of DFEs
					Individual Differences in Shooting Control: Working Memory Capacity
				TO SHOOT OR NOT TO SHOOT: STRESS AND EMOTION
					Stress and Shooting Performance: Ego Depletion
					Optimum Arousal Level, Threat Magnification, and Shooting Accuracy
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
			Chapter 6 DEADLY FORCE COGNITION III: MEMORY
				TYPES OF MEMORY
					Short- and Long-Term Memory
					Verbal and Visuospatial Memory
					Procedural and Declarative Memory
					Semantic and Episodic Memory
					Working and Implicit Memory
				STAGES OF LEARNING AND MEMORY
					Input: Pay Attention
					Consolidation: If It Feels Good or Bad, Remember It
					Storage: The More You Use It, the Better It Gets
					Retrieval: Come Back to Me
					Motor Memory: An Exception?
				STRESS AND MEMORY
					Memory Distortions Associated with an OIS/DFE
					Stress, Arousal, and Memory
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
		Part III DEADLY FORCE: PRACTICE AND POLICY
			Chapter 7 POLICE DEADLY FORCE AND RACE
				POLICE RACIAL BIAS: THE “FERGUSON EFFECT” AND BEYOND
				IS RACISM ENDEMIC TO POLICING?
				POLICE USE OF FORCE AND RACE
				FACTORS RELATED TO FORCE, DEALY FORCE, AND RACE
					Neighborhood Variables and Officer Race
					Demographic Variables
				RESEARCH ON RACIAL BIAS IN POLICE SHOOTINGS
					Shoot/Don’t Shoot and Race
					Cognitive Heuristics and Implicit Biases
				POLICE SHOOTING BIAS AND THE BRAIN
					Brain-Based Bias?
					Police Training and Racial Bias: Upside
					Police Training and Racial Bias: Downside
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
			Chapter 8 DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
				PSYCHOLOGICAL AFTEREFFECTS OF AN OIS/DFE
					Stages of Post-OIS Psychological Response
					Individual and Incident-Specific Factors in Post-OIS Response
					Situational Factors
					Responses of Supervisors and Peers
				OFFICER REACTIONS TO A CONTESTED OIS/DFE INCIDENT
				PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FOR OFFICER-INVOLVED SHOOTINGS
					Officer-Involved Shooting: On-Scene Response
					On-Scene Psychological Assessment and Intervention
					Follow-Up Psychological Services in an Officer-Involved Shooting
				PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF OFFICERS INVOLVED IN AN OIS/DFE
					Psycholegal Issues
					The Treatment Process
					Treatment Guidelines
				PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES FOR HELPING OFFICERS DEAL WITH THE STRESS OF AN INTERNAL INVESTIGATION OR LEGAL ACTION
					Don’t Panic
					Strategize
					Ask Your Lawyer
					Keep A Low Profile
					Work the Case
					Don’t Lie
					Have a Plan B
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
			Chapter 9 DEADLY FORCE ENCOUNTERS: LEGAL CONSEQUENCES
				POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES OF A CONTESTED OIS/DFE
					Internal Affairs or Outside Agency Investigation
					Criminal Prosecution
					Civil Lawsuit
				FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF POLICE OFFICERS IN CONTESTED DEADLY FORCE CASES
					Forensic versus Clinical Evaluations
					Taking the Case
					Evaluation Setting
					Evaluation and Report Components
				MALINGERING
					Description and Prevalence of Malingering in Psychological Evaluations
					What is Malingered in an OIS/DFE Case?
					Indicators of Malingering in OIS/DFE Cases
				THE FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGICAL EVALUATION: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR OFFICERS
				ON THE SPOT: TESTIFYING IN COURT FOR POLICE OFFICER DEFENDANTS IN OIS/DFE CASES
					Preparing for Testimony
					On the Stand
					Cross-Examination Tactics
					General Impression
				SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
		BIBLIOGRAPHY
		INDEX