The phonetics of Wa: Experimental phonetics, phonology, orthography and sociolinguistics

The phonetics of Wa: Experimental phonetics, phonology, orthography and sociolinguistics
Contents....vii
List of figures....x
List of tables....xix
Introduction....xxv
LINGUISTIC PHONETIC DESCRIPTION....xxv
SCOPE OF THIS MONOGRAPH....xxvi
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH....xxvii
ABBREVIATIONS....xxvii
CONVENTIONS IN STATISTICAL DATA....xxvii
1 Wa linguistic studies....1
1.1 Wa in Mon-Khmer context....1
1.2 Location and numbers of Wa speakers....2
Map of Mon-Khmer branches in Southeast Asia ....2
Map of Wa-speaking areas and speakers in this study....4
1.3 Genealogical classification of Wa languages....7
1.4 Dialects and mutual intelligibility....8
1.5 Standard Wa dialect....8
1.6 Ethnonyms and glossonyms....9
1.7 Sociolinguistic sample of Wa speakers....10
2 Field methods....12
2.1 Selection of consultants....12
2.2 Recording procedure....13
2.3 Language materials used for recording....15
3 Laboratory methods....16
3.1 The larynx....16
3.2 Phonation....20
3.3 Phonation types....20
3.3.1 Measuring phonation types....22
3.4 Laryngography....23
3.4.1 Closed quotient (CQ)....24
3.4.2 Some practical problems with closed quotient....26
3.5 Acoustic analysis....26
4 Wa phonology....28
4.1 Phonological overview....28
4.1.1 Phoneme inventory....28
4.1.2 Notational conventions....30
4.1.3 Aspiration....30
4.1.4 Voicing of plosives....30
4.1.5 Diphthongs....30
4.1.6 Register....31
4.1.7 Syllable structure....31
4.2 Historical phonology....32
4.2.1 Mon-Khmer sesquisyllabicity and historical morphology....32
4.2.2 Diachronic development of register and voicing contrasts....35
4.2.3 Diachronic development of diphthongs....38
4.2.4 Phonological structure of diphthongs in diachronic perspective....41
5 Segmental phonetics....45
5.1 Vowels....45
5.1.1 Descriptive schemata for vowel quality....45
5.1.2 Experimental analysis of vowel quality....50
5.1.3 Vowel duration....58
5.1.4 Diphthongs....66
5.2 Stops....74
5.2.1 Place contrasts....75
5.2.2 Voicing contrasts....85
5.2.3 Aspiration....99
5.2.4 Unreleased final stops....103
5.2.5 Consonant clusters....104
5.3 Laryngeal consonants....106
5.4 Fricatives....111
5.4.1 Presyllabic /s/....113
5.5 Sonorants....118
5.5.1 Nasals....118
5.5.2 Laterals /l l/....122
5.5.3 Rhotics /r r/....124
5.5.4 Palatal approximants /y y/....128
5.5.5 Alternations between Voiced approximant and Voiceless fricative....130
5.5.6 Aspirated, breathy-voiced or voiceless?....130
6 Suprasegmental phonetics....132
6.1 'Register' and 'voice quality'....132
6.2 Register in Mon-Khmer....133
6.3 Experimental investigation of the register contrast....135
6.3.1 Experimental design....135
6.3.2 Statistical test design....139
6.3.3 Fundamental frequency....139
6.3.4 Low-frequency acoustic measures of phonatio....147
6.3.6 Spectral tilt: the resonance balance measure....154
6.3.7 Vowel quality....156
6.3.8 Vowel duration....160
6.4 Comparing phonetic correlates of register....163
6.5 Whispering and the register contrast....166
6.6 Emphatic tone....170
6.7 Coarticulation of phonation types....171
6.7.1 Register and aspiration during and after sonorant consonants....171
6.7.2 Register and aspiration in stops....176
6.7.3 Register, aspiration and final laryngeal consonants....179
6.8 Patterning of phonation types in Wa....185
7 Wa orthographies....188
7.1 Scripts in use in the Wa-speaking area....188
7.2 Development of Wa orthographies....189
7.2.1 Early illustrative transcription....189
7.2.2 Bible orthography....189
7.2.3 Wa orthography in China....192
7.2.4 Wa orthographical reform since the 1980s....194
7.3 Comparison of Wa orthographies....198
7.4 Wa orthographies in use....198
7.5 Literacy in Wa....202
8 Wa language materials....205
8.1 Recording wordlist....205
8.2 Texts in Wa....209
8.2.1 The North Wind and the Sun....209
8.2.2 The Parable of the Sower....211
8.3 Wa bibliography....214
8.3.1 Wa language learning aids and materials....214
8.3.2 Dictionaries....214
8.3.3 Selected Publications in Wa....215
9 References....216