The Phanerozoic Geology and Natural Resources of Egypt

Preface
	Why This Book?
	Contents
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Phanerozoic Geology of Egypt
1 An Overview of the Phanerozoic Geology in Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Paleozoic Arcs and Basins
		2.1 The Cambrian Deposits
		2.2 The Ordovician Deposits
		2.3 The Devonian–Silurian Deposits
		2.4 The Carboniferous–Permian Deposits
		2.5 The Permian / Triassic Transition
		2.6 The Triassic Deposits
		2.7 The Triassic–Jurassic Transition
		2.8 The Jurassic Deposits
		2.9 The Jurassic–Cretaceous Transition
	3 The Cretaceous Deposits
	4 Cenozoic
		4.1 The Paleocene–Eocene Successions
		4.2 The Eocene/Early Oligocene Transition
		4.3 The Oligocene Deposits
		4.4 The Oligocene–Miocene Transition
		4.5 The Miocene Deposits
		4.6 The Pliocene Deposits
	5 Surface Water Resources in Egypt
	References
2 Phanerozoic Structural Setting and Tectonic Evolution of Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Paleozoic Structures in Egypt
		2.1 Precambrian-Cambrian Transition and the Hammamat Sediments
		2.2 Distribution of Paleozoic Sediments Allover Egypt
		2.3 Glacial/Fluvioglacial Deposits in Egypt
		2.4 Paleozoic Structural Framework of Egypt
			2.4.1 Paleozoic Arches
			2.4.2 Paleozoic Basins
	3 Mesozoic Structures in Egypt
		3.1 Jurassic-Early Cretaceous Rifts
		3.2 Cretaceous Rifts
		3.3 Late Cretaceous to Recent Inverted Structures
			3.3.1 Northern Western Desert Inverted Structures
			3.3.2 Northern Eastern Desert Inverted Structures
			3.3.3 North Sinai Inverted Structures
		3.4 Late Mesozoic–Early Tertiary Structures in Central and Southern Egypt
			3.4.1 The Bahariya Depression Inverted Structures
			3.4.2 Southern Western Desert Inverted Structures
	4 Cenozoic Structures in Egypt
		4.1 Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/P) Boundary
		4.2 Paleocene-Eocene Transition
		4.3 Oligocene–Miocene Rifting
			4.3.1 Magmatism
			4.3.2 The Red Sea and Gulf of Suez Rift System
			4.3.3 The Cairo-Suez District
		4.4 The Opening of the Gulf of Aqaba (Miocene-Pliocene)
		4.5 The Geology of the River Nile (Pliocene)
		4.6 Quaternary and Neotectonics
	5 Commentary on the Main Topics Highlighted in this Chapter
	References
3 Phanerozoic Geomorphology in Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Physiographic Regions
		2.1 The Nile Valley
		2.2 Eastern Desert and Sinai
		2.3 The Western Desert
	3 Geomorphological Evolution
		3.1 Fluvial Systems
		3.2 Plateaus
			3.2.1 The Two Plateaus of Central Sinai
			3.2.2 The Two Plateaus of Galala (Northern and Southern)
			3.2.3 Ma’azaa
			3.2.4 The Libyan Plateau
			3.2.5 El-Gilf-Abu Ras
			3.2.6 Marmarica
		3.3 Depressions
	4 Conclusions
	References
4 Paleoposition and Paleogeography of Egypt During the Phanerozoic Era
	Abstract
	1 Introduction of Paleomagnetic Work in Egypt
	2 Material and Methods
	3 Results
	4 Paleogeographic Evolution
		4.1 Mesozoic–Present
		4.2 Paleozoic
	5 Paleolatitudinal Evolution
	6 Summary
	Acknowledgements
	References
5 Precambrian Life and Cambrian Revolution
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Origin of Life
		2.1 Definition and Characteristics of Life
		2.2 The Origin of Life
	3 Precambrian Life
		3.1 The Archean Life
			3.1.1 Abiologic Chemical Evolution
			3.1.2 Biologic Chemical Evolution
			3.1.3 Methanogens
		3.2 Proterozoic Life
			3.2.1 Prokaryotes
			3.2.2 Eukaryotes (The Greatest Evolutionary Step)
	4 Oxygen Revolution
	5 Photosynthesis
	6 Ediacaran Biota
	7 Neoproterozoic Microfossils of Egypt
		7.1 The Hammamat Group
		7.2 Ediacaran Microfossils of the Hammamat Group
	8 Cambrian Revolution
	9 Cambrian Fauna of Egypt
		9.1 Cambrian Fauna of the Igla Formation, Hammamat Group, Wadi Semna, Central Eastern Desert
			9.1.1 Cambrian Microfossil Assemblage Other Than Foraminifera of Wadi Semna
			9.1.2 Foraminiferal Fauna of the Igla Formation at Wadi Semna
		9.2 Cambrian Fauna of Sinai and Eastern Desert
		9.3 Burgess Shale Fauna
	References
6 Mesozoic Sedimentary Succession in Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 The Triassic Successions
		2.1 The Arif El Naga Formation
		2.2 The Qiseib Formation
		2.3 The Lakia Formation
		2.4 The Eghei Group
	3 The Jurassic Successions
		3.1 The Jurassic Rocks of the Gebel Maghara
			3.1.1 The Mashabba Formation
			3.1.2 The Rajabiah Formation
			3.1.3 The Shusha Formation
			3.1.4 The Bir Maghara Formation
			3.1.5 The Safa Formation
			3.1.6 The Masajid Formation
		3.2 The Jurassic Rocks of the Gulf of Suez
			3.2.1 The Jurassic Rocks at Ras El-Abd
			3.2.2 The Jurassic Rocks at Khashm El-Galala
		3.3 The Subsurface Jurassic Successions
			3.3.1 The Bahrein Formation
			3.3.2 The Wadi Natrun Formation
			3.3.3 The Khatatba Formation
			3.3.4 The Masajid Formation
			3.3.5 The Sidi Barrani Formation
	4 The Cretaceous Successions
		4.1 The Surface Lower Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks
			4.1.1 The South Western Desert
			4.1.2 The Sinai and the Northern Eastern Desert
		4.2 The Subsurface Lower Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks
			4.2.1 The Kom Ombo Basin
			4.2.2 The Northern Western Desert
		4.3 The Surface Upper Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks
			4.3.1 North Western Desert Successions
			4.3.2 South Western Desert Successions
			4.3.3 The South Eastern Desert Successions
			4.3.4 The North Eastern Desert and Sinai Successions
		4.4 The Subsurface Upper Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks
			4.4.1 The Western Desert Successions
			4.4.2 The Eastern Desert Successions
	5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
7 Mesozoic Oceanic Anoxic Events and the Associated Black Shale Deposits as a Potential Source of Energy
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Mesozoic Oceanic Anoxic Events
		2.1 The Early Toarcian (T-OAE)
		2.2 The Early Aptian (OAE 1a, Selli Event)
		2.3 The Cenomanian–Turonian (OAE 2, Bonarelli Event)
	3 Oceanic Anoxic Events in Egypt
	4 Black Shale of the Oceanic Anoxic Events
	5 Black Shale Associated with the OAEs in Egypt
		5.1 The Aptian Stage
		5.2 The Albian Stage
		5.3 The Cenomanian–Turonian Stages
	6 Properties of Black Shale
	7 Black Shale as a Source of Energy
	8 Utilization of Black Shale
		8.1 Direct Combustion
		8.2 Oil Distillation Process
		8.3 Cement Industry
	9 Economic Analysis
	10 Conclusions
	References
8 The Evolution of Vegetation Through the Cretaceous of Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Abu Ballas Floras and Its Allies
	3 Sabaya Formation, the First Angiosperm-Dominated Assemblage
	4 Bahariya Formation and Its Equivalents (Angiosperms-Dominated Flora)
	5 Timsah Formation Floral Assemblage
	6 Mut Formation Flora and Its Counterparts
	7 Vegetation and Floristic Composition and Palaeoclimate: Concluding Remarks
	Acknowledgements
	References
9 Dinosaur Faunas of Egypt—The Terrestrial Late Cretaceous Vertebrate Record
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Historical Overview
	3 The Vertebrate Fauna of the Bahariya Formation (Cenomanian)
		3.1 Geological and Palaeoenvironmental Setting
		3.2 Fishes
			3.2.1 Chondrichthyes
			3.2.2 Osteichthyes
		3.3 Testudinata
			3.3.1 Apertotemporalis baharijensis
		3.4 Crocodyliformes
			3.4.1 Libycosuchus brevirostris
			3.4.2 Stomatosuchus inermis
			3.4.3 Aegyptosuchus peyeri
			3.4.4 Indeterminate Crocodyliforms (‘Krokodilier G and F’)
		3.5 Dinosauria
			3.5.1 Spinosaurus aegyptiacus
			3.5.2 Carcharodontosaurus saharicus
			3.5.3 Bahariasaurus ingens and Deltadromeus agilis
			3.5.4 Indeterminate Theropods (aff. Erectopus sauvagei and cf. Elaphrosaurus bambergi)
			3.5.5 Aegyptosaurus baharijensis
			3.5.6 Paralititan stromeri
			3.5.7 Indeterminate Sauropods (cf. Dicraeosaurus sp. and an Indeterminate Rebbachisaurid)
		3.6 Plesiosauria
		3.7 Squamata (Simoliophis sp.)
		3.8 Palaeoecology
	4 Tetrapod Trackways from the Abu Agag Formation (Turonian)
		4.1 Geological and Palaeoenvironmental Setting
		4.2 Tetrapod Trackways
	5 The Vertebrate Fauna of the Quseir Formation (Campanian)
		5.1 Geological and Palaeoenvironmental Setting
		5.2 Testudinata Indet.
		5.3 Crocodyliforms
			5.3.1 Wahasuchus egyptensis
			5.3.2 Crocodyliformes Indet.
		5.4 Dinosauria
			5.4.1 Theropoda Indet.
			5.4.2 Mansourasaurus shahinae
			5.4.3 Sauropoda Indet.
			5.4.4 Mammalia? Indet.
	6 The Vertebrate Fauna of the Duwi Formation (Campanian–Maastrichtian)
		6.1 Geological and Palaeoenvironmental Setting
		6.2 Abelisauridae Indet.
	7 The Vertebrate Fauna of the Dakhla Formation (Maastrichtian–Palaeocene)
		7.1 Geological and Palaeoenvironmental Setting
		7.2 Testudinata
		7.3 Sauropoda Indet.
	8 The Importance of Egyptian Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems
	Acknowledgements
	References
10 Cretaceous Wildfires in Egypt - Inferences for Palaeoecology and Palaeoenvironments
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Cretaceous Wildfires and Their Impact on Ecosystems
	3 Cretaceous Wildfires in Egypt
		3.1 Malha Formation, Sinai
		3.2 Bahariya Formation, Bahariya Oasis
		3.3 Quseir Formation, Baris Oasis
	Acknowledgements
	References
11 Palaeoenvironmental and Palaeontological Study of the Gabal Ekma Section (Egypt) Throughout the Coniacian-Santonian Boundary
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Geological Setting and Lithology
	3 Material and Methods
	4 Results
		4.1 Organic Carbon Stable Isotopes
		4.2 Bulk-Rock Mineralogy
		4.3 Phosphorus
		4.4 Major Elements
		4.5 Biostratigraphy
		4.6 Systematic Palaeontology
	5 Discussion
		5.1 Carbon Isotope Correlations Through Oceanic Anoxic Event 3
		5.2 Links Between Phosphorus, Anoxia and Climatic Changes
	6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
12 Climatic and Environmental Changes During Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum in Egypt: An Overview
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Theories Explaining the PETM Event
		1.2 Age and Duration of the PETM Event
		1.3 Paleoposition Overview
	2 Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum in Egypt
	3 Dababiya GSSP
		3.1 Stable Isotope Profiles
		3.2 Biostratigraphy
		3.3 Bulk Rock and Clay Mineralogy
		3.4 Organic Matter and Mercury Contents
		3.5 Geochemistry
	4 Discussion
		4.1 Carbon Isotope Variations and Possible Causes
		4.2 Weathering Inferred from Mineralogical Composition
		4.3 Weathering and Paleoclimatic Conditions Inferred from Geochemistry
		4.4 Redox Condition and Paleoproductivity During the PETM
		4.5 Volcanism Associated with PETM Event
		4.6 Complete PETM Scenario Emphasizes from Dababiya GSSP
	5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
13 A Standard Sequence Stratigraphic Scheme for the Maastrichtian-Ypresian Successions of the Southern and Central Western Desert, Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Stratigraphic Setting
	3 Material and Methods
	4 Results
		4.1 Characteristics of Facies Associations
			4.1.1 Garra El-Arbain Facies Association
			4.1.2 Nile Valley Facies Association
			4.1.3 Farafra Facies Association
		4.2 Depositional Facies and Environments
		4.3 Planktic Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy
			4.3.1 Maastrichtian
			4.3.2 Paleocene
			4.3.3 Ypresian
		4.4 Maastrichtian-Ypresian Sequence Stratigraphy
			4.4.1 Sequence Boundaries
			4.4.2 Depositional Sequences
	5 Discussion
		5.1 Biostratigraphic Resolution
		5.2 Depositional Systems Tracts
		5.3 Comparison of Sea-Level Falls
			5.3.1 Local and Regional Comparison
			5.3.2 Comparison with Tunisia and Libya
			5.3.3 Comparison with Arabian Platform
			5.3.4 Comparison with Global and Western European Sea-Level Curves
			5.3.5 Comparison with the New Jersey Passive Continental Margin
		5.4 Remarks on Inferred Sea-Level Falls
		5.5 Evolution of the Maastrichtian-Ypresian Sequences
	6 Conclusions
	References
14 The Eocene–Oligocene Vertebrate Assemblages of the Fayum Depression, Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Historical Overview
	3 Geology of the Fayum Depression
		3.1 Birket Qarun Formation
		3.2 Qasr el Sagha Formation
		3.3 Gebel Qatrani Formation
	4 Fauna Overview
		4.1 Reptilia
			4.1.1 Serpentes
			4.1.2 Varanidae
			4.1.3 Testudines
			4.1.4 Crocodyliformes
		4.2 Aves
		4.3 Mammalia
			4.3.1 Marsupialia
			4.3.2 Ptolemaiida
			4.3.3 Macroscelidea
			4.3.4 Afrosoricida
			4.3.5 Embrithopoda
			4.3.6 Proboscidea
			4.3.7 Hyracoidea
			4.3.8 Sirenia
			4.3.9 Primates
			4.3.10 Rodentia
			4.3.11 Pholidota
			4.3.12 Cetacea
			4.3.13 Anthracotheriidae
			4.3.14 Chiroptera
			4.3.15 Hyaenodonta
	5 Importance of the Fayum Depression for Mammalian Evolution
	Acknowledgements
	References
15 The Oligocene Palynology and Palaeoclimates of Northern Egypt as Recorded in the Dabaa Formation
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Oligocene in Egypt: Geology and Facies Distribution
	3 Lithostratigraphic Framework of the Oligocene in Egypt
		3.1 The Gebel Qatrani Formation
		3.2 Widan El Faras Basalt
		3.3 The Gebel Ahmar Formation
		3.4 The Nakheil Formation
		3.5 The Katkut Formation (Serir Deposits)
		3.6 The Tayiba Formation/Red Beds
		3.7 The Tineh Formation
		3.8 Wadi El Arish Formation
		3.9 Dabaa Formation
		3.10 Al Faidiyah Formation
	4 Terrestrial Megaflora
	5 Floristic Composition, Vegetation, and Palaeoclimatic Inferences
	6 Marine Palynomorphs, Primarily Dinoflagellates
	7 Oligocene Palynostratigraphical Framework in Egypt
	8 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
16 Quaternary Environmental and Climatic Changes in Egypt: Proxies from Sedimentary Records
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Quaternary Sedimentation and Stratigraphy Along the Nile Delta and Valley
		2.1 The Plio-Pleistocene Nile Delta Stratigraphy as a Proxy of Paleoclimate
		2.2 The Late Quaternary Nile Delta Sediments as a Proxy of Paleoclimate
			2.2.1 The Quaternary Nile Sediments; the Monsoons and the Pluvial Intervals
			2.2.2 The Quaternary Nile Delta Sediments and Eastern Mediterranean Sapropels
			2.2.3 The Quaternary Nile Delta Sediments and Pollen Zones
	3 The Quaternary Sedimentation and Stratigraphy of the Northwestern Coast of Egypt
	4 The Coral Reef Terraces Along the Red Sea Coast as a Proxy for Paleoclimate
	5 The Quaternary Sedimentation Along the Western Desert of Egypt
		5.1 The Geology of the Southwestern Desert of Egypt
		5.2 The Freshwater Carbonates and Lacustrine Sediments as Proxies for Green Sahara
		5.3 The Aeolian Sediments as a Proxy to Arid Climate
	6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
17 Evolution of the Nile River Through Time
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Stages of the Nile Evolution
		2.1 Early Origins of the Oligocene to Late Miocene Nile (North-Flowing Pre-Messinian Nile)
		2.2 The Late Miocene Nile (the Messinian Nile Canyon)
		2.3 The Pliocene and Quaternary Niles
		2.4 The Modern Nile
	3 The Nile’s Water and Resources
	4 Conclusions
	References
Natural Resources in Egypt
18 The Phanerozoic Stratabound/Stratiform Ore Deposits of Egypt: Their Mode of Occurrence and Formation in Accordance with the Phanerozoic Geological Evolution
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 paleo-karstzoic Framework and Related Ore Deposits
		2.1 Cambrian Stratabound Th–U and Cu Occurrences
			2.1.1 Cambrian Th–U Occurrence
			2.1.2 Cambrian Stratiform Malachite
		2.2 Intra-Carboniferous Stratabound/Stratiform Mn Ores with Cu and U Enrichment
	3 Mesozoic Framework and Related Ore Deposits
		3.1 Jurassic—Lower Cretaceous Ironstones
		3.2 Upper Cretaceous Ironstones, Laterites and Phosphorite Deposit
			3.2.1 Turonian Laterites
			3.2.2 Coniacian-Santonian Oolitic Ironstones
			3.2.3 Campanian–Maastrichtian Stratiform Phosphorite Deposit
	4 Cenozoic Stratabound Ore Deposits
		4.1 Cenezoic Framework and Related Ore Deposits
		4.2 paleo-karstgene Stratabound Deposits
			4.2.1 Lutetian-Bartonian Stratabound Oolitic-Oncolitic Iron Ore (El Bhariya Depression, Western Desert)
			4.2.2 Fe-Rich Lateritic Blankets (Surficial Ferricrete Duricrust)
			4.2.3 Fossil Pre-rift (Post-eocene-Pre-early Oligocene?) Alumino-Ferruginous Latosol
			4.2.4 Karst Economic Carbonate Stones (Karst Cave Fills, “Egyptian Alabaster”)
	5 Cenozoic Stratabound Ore Deposits
		5.1 Neogene Rift-Related Ore Deposits
		5.2 Oligo-Miocene (?) Mn Conglomerates
		5.3 Middle Miocene Stratiform Galena of Beach Environment
		5.4 Middle Miocene Stratiform Oolitic-Oncolitic Mn Ore
		5.5 Middle Miocene Stratiform and Post-middle Miocene Stratabound Celestite, Essel Mine and South Essel Areas (Stratigraphic Sections 2–5, Fig. 33)
			5.5.1 Middle Miocene Stratiform Celestite (Generation I Celestite, Diagenetic Crystallization Rhythmites, DCRs)
			5.5.2 Post-middle Miocene Stratabound Celestite (Generation II Celestite, Karst-Related Cavity Filling)
		5.6 Middle to Late Miocene Stratiform and Stratabound Barite
		5.7 Middle to Late Miocene Stratiform and Stratabound Biogenic Sulfur Deposits
		5.8 Post-late Miocene Stratabound Pb, Zn Sulfides, and Calamine Ore
		5.9 Post-miocene Surficial Mn Deposits
		5.10 Post-miocene-Quaternary (?) Surficial Conglomeritic Mn Deposits
	Acknowledgements
	References
19 Potential Exploitation of the Phanerozoic Glauconites in Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Glauconite Occurrence and Stratigraphy in Egypt
	3 Glauconite Genesis
	4 Glauconite Alteration Products
	5 Glauconite Characterization as K Fertilizers
		5.1 Physical Characterization
		5.2 Chemical Characterization
			5.2.1 Macronutrients Content
			5.2.2 Heavy Metals Content
			5.2.3 PH and Salinity
			5.2.4 Glauconite Solubility
	6 Glauconite as a Soil Conditioner
	7 Cultivation with Glauconite
	8 Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
20 Phanerozoic Rare Earth Element Resources of Egypt: Metallogenetic and Mineral Exploration Constraints
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 HREE-Mineralized Alkaline Rocks (Gabal El Gara El Hamra Complex) (GH) of Southwestern Desert, Egypt
		2.1 Geologic Setting of Gabal El Gara El Hamra Complex
		2.2 Petrography
		2.3 Mode of Occurrence of Y, HREE, and Th Mineralization
		2.4 Mineral Chemistry
			2.4.1 Essential Minerals
			2.4.2 Ore Minerals
		2.5 Rock Geochemistry
		2.6 Petrotectonic Setting, Mineralization Type, and Metallogenesis
	3 LREE-Mineralized Nepheline Syenites (Abu Khruq) (AK) Ring Complexes, Egypt
		3.1 Geological Setting of Abu Khruq Ring Complex
		3.2 Petrography of Abu Khruq Ring Complex
		3.3 Mineral Chemistry
			3.3.1 Feldspars
			3.3.2 Alkali Pyroxene
		3.4 Rock Geochemistry
		3.5 Genesis of the Alteration Phenomena
		3.6 Pyroxene as Petrogenetic Tracer
		3.7 Metallogenetic and Exploration Constraints
	4 HREE-Mineralized Carboniferous Sandstones (Ramlet Hemyir and Um Hamad) of Southwestern Sinai, Egypt
	5 REE Resources in Black Sand Deposits of Egypt
	Acknowledgements
	References
21 Major Groundwater Reservoirs of Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Nile Valley and Nile Delta Aquifer (NVNDA)
		2.1 Geologic and Hydrogeologic Settings
		2.2 Palaeohydrogeologic History
		2.3 Groundwater Recharge
		2.4 Hydrogeochemistry and Groundwater Quality
	3 The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS)
		3.1 Geologic and Hydrogeologic Settings
		3.2 Aquifer Recharge and Hydrogeochemistry
		3.3 Groundwater Flow and Aquifer Characteristics
	4 The Fissured Carbonate Rock Aquifer (FCRA)
		4.1 Geologic and Hydrogeologic Settings
	5 The Fissured Hard Rock Aquifer (FHRA)
		5.1 Aquifer Geology and Hydraulic Characteristics
		5.2 Groundwater Recharge and Quality
	6 The Moghra Aquifer
		6.1 Aquifer Geology and Hydrogeologic Settings
		6.2 Aquifer Recharge and Groundwater Quality
	7 The Coastal Aquifer
		7.1 Aquifer Geology and Hydraulic Properties
		7.2 Groundwater Recharge and Quality
	8 Conclusions
	References
22 Geothermal Potentiality of Egypt: Review and Updated Status
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Geothermal Surface Manifestations in Egypt
	3 Geology and Structural Setting of Egypt
	4 Heat Flow of Egypt
	5 Exploration of Geothermal Resources in Egypt
	6 Geothermal Present Utilizations and Future Developments
	7 Conclusions
	References
23 Petroleum Source Rocks of Egypt: An Integrated Spatio-temporal Palynological and Organic Geochemical Studies Within the Phanerozoic
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Source Rock Deposition: Processes and Mechanisms
	3 Source Rock Distribution Through Time and Space—Egyptian Outlook
	4 Phanerozoic Source Rocks—Examples and Evaluation
		4.1 Paleozoic Source Rocks
		4.2 Mesozoic Source Rocks
			4.2.1 North Western Desert
			4.2.2 Gulf of Suez
			4.2.3 Nile Delta
		4.3 Cenozoic Source Rocks
			4.3.1 North Western Desert
			4.3.2 Gulf of Suez
			4.3.3 Nile Delta
	5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
24 Hydrocarbon Potential of Carbonate Rocks in Egypt
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Western Desert
		2.1 Masajid Formation
		2.2 Alamein Dolomite
		2.3 Abu Roash Formation
		2.4 Apollonia Formation
	3 Gulf of Suez Basin
		3.1 Brown Limestone
		3.2 Thebes Formation
		3.3 Nukhul Formation
		3.4 Rudeis Formation
		3.5 Kareem Formation
		3.6 Belayim Formation
		3.7 Ras Gharib Formation
	4 Offshore Nile Delta Basin
	5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
25 Western Desert Petroleum System: New Exploration Opportunities and Challenges
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 General Lithostratigraphy of the Western Desert
	3 Exploration History
	4 Tectono-Stratigraphic History Control on Petroleum System
		4.1 Paleozoic Craton
		4.2 Jurassic Rifting
		4.3 Cretaceous Passive Margin
		4.4 Syrian Arc Deformation and Foreland Transgression
	5 Total Petroleum System in the Western Desert
	6 Western Desert Sedimentary Basins and Their Petroleum System
		6.1 Northern or Greater WD Sedimentary Basins
			6.1.1 Abu Gharadig Basin
			6.1.2 Matruh-Shoushan Basin
			6.1.3 Alamein Basin
			6.1.4 Faghur Basin
			6.1.5 Gindi Basin
		6.2 Southern WD Sedimentary Basins
			6.2.1 Beni Suef Basin
			6.2.2 Komombo Basin
			6.2.3 Nuqra Basin
	7 New Opportunities: Road to Successful Exploration and New Resources
		7.1 Stratigraphic and Combined Trap Concept
		7.2 Deeper Targets Reservoirs
		7.3 Structural Play: Inversion Structures and Faulted Traps and Their Accompanied Fluid Migration
		7.4 Applying Sequence Stratigraphy Concept
		7.5 Unconventional Resources
		7.6 Further Exploration in the Southern Western Desert Basins
	8 Challenges for Hydrocarbon Exploration in WD Basins
		8.1 Drilling Issues Challenges
		8.2 Petroleum System Challenges
		8.3 Seismic Issues
	Acknowledgements
	References
26 A Review of the Offshore East Mediterranean Mesozoic-Cenozoic Petroleum Systems
	Abstract
	1 Introduction
	2 Geological Setting
		2.1 Geodynamic Evolution
		2.2 Tectono-stratigraphic Evolution
	3 The Levant Basin
		3.1 Depositional Environments
		3.2 Petroleum Systems
	4 The Northwestern Desert
		4.1 Depositional Environments
		4.2 Petroleum Systems
	5 The Nile Delta
		5.1 Depositional Environments
		5.2 Petroleum Systems
	6 Discussion
	7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References