The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire

Cover
Half Title
Series Information
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of contents
Detailed Table of contents
List of Figures
Table of Contents
Image credits
Foreword
Glossary of historic place names
1 The Parthian Empire: A first approach
	1.1 Documentary sources from within the Parthian world
	1.2 Greek – Roman – Chinese literary sources
	1.3 Ancient sources: historical truths or distorted images?
	1.4 The Parthians: nomads – Hellenes – Iranians?
	1.5 Geography of the Parthian Empire
	Notes
2 History of the great empires in Iran
	2.1 The empire of Elam
	2.2 The Medes and Persians
	2.3 The empire of the Achaemenids
	2.4 Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) – the Hellenistic period
	2.5 The empire of the Seleucids
	Notes
3 History of the Parthian Empire
	3.1 Phase 1: Development from a Seleucid vassal state to the Parthian Empire: from Arsaces I to Phraates I (c. 247–165 BC)
		3.1.1 Arsaces I (c. 247–211 BC)
		3.1.2 Arsaces II (c. 211–191 BC)
		3.1.3 Phriapatius (c. 191–176 BC)
			3.1.3.1 Arsaces IV (c. 170–168 BC)
		3.1.4 Phraates I (c. 168–164 BC)
	3.2 Phase 2: Expansion of the Parthian Empire: from Mithradates I to Darius of Media Atropatene (c. 165–70 BC)
		3.2.1 Mithradates I (c. 165/164–132 BC)
		3.2.2 Phraates II (c. 132–27 BC)
		3.2.3 Inter-regnal Issue (c. 127 BC)
		3.2.4 Artabanus I (c. 127–123 BC)–Arsaces X (c. 122–121 BC)
		3.2.5 Mithradates II (c. 121–91 BC)
		3.2.6 Gotarzes I (c. 91–87 BC)
			The ‘dark age’ of Parthia (c. 90–57 BC)
		3.2.7 Orodes I (c. 90–80 BC)
		3.2.8 Unknown King I (c. 80 BC) and Unknown King II  (c. 80–70 BC)
		3.2.9 Sinatruces (c. 93/92–c. 69/68 BC)
		3.2.10 Darius (?) of Media Atropatene (c. 70 BC)
	3.3 Phase 3: Parthia as a great power: from Phraates III to Vonones II (c. 70 BC–c. 51 AD)
		3.3.1 Phraates III (c. 70–57 BC)
		3.3.2 Mithradates III (c. 57–54 BC)
		3.3.3 Orodes II (c. 57–38 BC)
		3.3.4 Pacorus I (c. 39 BC)
		3.3.5 Phraates IV (c. 38–2 BC)
		3.3.6 Queen Musa and Phraataces, c. 2 BC–4 AD
		3.3.7 Tiridates I (c. 29–26 BC)
		3.3.8 Orodes III (c. 6 AD)
		3.3.9 Vonones I (c. 8–12 AD)
		3.3.10 Artabanus II (c. 10–38 AD)
		3.3.11 Tiridates II (c. 35–36 AD)
		3.3.12 Vardanes I (c. 40–45 AD) and Gotarzes II (c. 40–51 AD)
		3.3.13 Gotarzes II (c. 40–51 AD)
		3.3.14 Vonones II (c. 51 AD)
	3.4 Phase 4: Phases of stability – inner turmoil – decline of the Parthian Empire: from Vologases I (c. 51–79 AD) to Artabanus
		3.4.1 Vologases I (c. 50/51–79 AD)
		3.4.2 Son of Vardanes (c. 55–58 AD) = Vardanes II (Sellwood)
		3.4.3 Vologases II (listed by Sellwood, but did not exist)
		3.4.4 Pacorus II (c. 75–110 AD)
		3.4.5 Artabanus III (c. 80–80/81 AD)
		3.4.6 Vologases III (c. 105–147 AD)
		3.4.7 Osroes I (c. 109–129 AD)
		3.4.8 Parthamaspates (c. 116 AD)
		3.4.9 Mithradates IV (c. 129–140 AD)
		3.4.10 Unknown King III (c. 140 AD)
		3.4.11 Vologases IV (c. 147–191 AD)
		3.4.12 Osroes II (c. 190 AD)
		3.4.13 Vologases V (c. 191–208 AD)
		3.4.14 Vologases VI (c. 208–228 AD)
		3.4.15 Artabanus IV (c. 216–224 AD)
		3.4.16 Tiridates III (c. 216–224 AD?)
	3.5 Ardashir I and the newly founded Sasanian Empire
	3.6 The end of the Parthian Empire – reasons for  the downfall
	Notes
4 The structure of the Parthian Empire
	4.1 The king
		4.1.1 The ruler’s image as an agent of propaganda
		4.1.2 The king’s image – iconography on Parthian coins
			4.1.2.1 Headgear
			4.1.2.2 Diadem – Greek and Iranian tradition
			4.1.2.3 Tiara – the headgear of rulers in Eurasia
			4.1.2.4 Clothing: kandy, cloak of the Medes and Persians – chlamys, a Greek cloak – Parthian clothing, tunic and trousers
			4.1.2.5 About the royal wart
			4.1.2.6 Omphalos
		4.1.3 Investiture of the kings
		4.1.4 Ancestral cult of the Parthian kings – were kings deified as gods?
	4.2 The nobility
	4.3 The Parthian army – standing army – Parthian shot
		4.3.1 War tactics – light cavalry – cataphracts – elephants
		4.3.2 Weapons – depictions of weapons – finds of real weapons
			4.3.2.1 Bows and goryths (quiver and bow case)
			4.3.2.2 Four-lobed dagger
			4.3.2.3 Short sword
			4.3.2.4 Shields
			4.3.2.5 Long swords
		4.3.3 Parthian legionnaires in the service of Rome – Parthian  soldiers on the Rhine?
	4.4 Administrative structure of the empire
		4.4.1 The Parthian language and the unification of administrative structures in the empire
	4.5 Parthian queens and marriage policy
		4.5.1 Clothing of women/of goddesses shown on coins
			4.5.1.1 Chiton/himation/peplos
	Notes
5 Vassal states and kingdoms under Parthian influence
	5.1 The kingdom of Osrhoene
	5.2 The kingdom of Commagene
	5.3 Gordyene
	5.4 Adiabene and Media Atropatene
	5.5 Characene
	5.6 Elymais
	5.7 Persis
	5.8 The kingdom of Hatra
	Notes
6 The Parthian Empire and the peoples of Eurasia
	6.1 Migration of peoples from China to the eastern border of Parthia – the construction of the Great Wall and its ...
	6.2 Saka
		6.2.1 The area of the Sakaraukae
	6.3 Sarmatians
	6.4 Graeco-Bactrian kingdom
	6.5 Indo-Greek kingdom
	6.6 Indo-Scythian kingdom of the Saka
	6.7 Indo-Parthian kingdom
	6.8 Kushan Empire
	Notes
7 Cities and architecture in the Parthian Empire
	7.1 Structure and architecture of the cities
		7.1.1 Circular cities
		7.1.2 Iwan
		7.1.3 Dome
		7.1.4 Stucco technique and stucco decoration
	7.2 Cities in the homeland of the Parthians and in Iran
		7.2.1 Nisa
			7.2.1.1 Round Hall – Red Building
			7.2.1.2 Treasury of Mithradatkart
		7.2.2 Merv
		7.2.3 Herat
		7.2.4 Shahr-e Qumis (Hecatompylos)
		7.2.5 Rhagae
		7.2.6 Ecbatana
		7.2.7 Susa
	7.3 Cities in Syria and Mesopotamia
		7.3.1 Seleucia on the Tigris
		7.3.2 Ctesiphon
		7.3.3 Dura-Europos
		7.3.4 Hatra
		7.3.5 Palmyra
	Notes
8 Trade and business in the Parthian Empire
	8.1 Parthian coins and the genealogy of Parthian kings – basic information
		8.1.1 Cataloguing Parthian coins according to Sellwood and Assar
		8.1.2 Parthian denominations
		8.1.3 Value of Parthian money
		8.1.4 Mints
		8.1.5 Inscriptions on coins
			8.1.5.1 Greek inscriptions
			8.1.5.2 Parthian inscriptions
	8.2 Mineral resources – mining
	8.3 Agriculture in Parthia
	8.4 Wine and trade
	8.5 Water management – underground qanats in Parthia
	8.6 Cattle breeding among the Parthians
	8.7 Parthian markets
	Notes
9 Insights into social life in Parthia
	9.1 The Parthian language
	9.2 Parthian literature – an epic with heroes
		9.2.1 The Hymn of the Pearl
		9.2.2 The story of Vis and Ramin
		9.2.3 Sha–hna–me – heroic legends
		9.2.4 Parthian literature and Europe
	9.3 Equality between men and women – women and law – property
	9.4 Education
	9.5 Slaves and prisoners of war
	9.6 Music of the Parthians
	9.7 Medical knowledge in Parthian times
	9.8 Living conditions – income – salary payments
	9.9 The kitchen of the Parthians: recipe for chicken in Parthian style
	9.10 Clothing in Parthia: kandys – chlamys – tunic and trousers
		9.10.1 Kandys
		9.10.2 Chlamys
		9.10.3 Parthian tunic and trousers
		9.10.4 Women: beauty and clothing: chiton/himation/peplos
	9.11 Astronomy – calendars
		9.11.1 The Seleucid calendar
		9.11.2 The Parthian calendar
		9.11.3 The Zoroastrian calendar
		9.11.4 Year and month dates on Parthian coins
		9.11.5 Coins with intercalated years/months (ΕΜΒΟΛΙΜΟΥ)
		9.11.6 Conversion of the Seleucid Era into the Dionysian or Common Era
			9.11.6.1 Example coin to illustrate the conversion of the year’s date to the Dionysian or Common Era
		9.11.7 Conversion of the Parthian Era into the Dionysian or Common Era
	Notes
10 Parthian art: art in the Arsacid kingdom
	10.1 Art finds in Nisa – rhyta – sculptures
		10.1.1 The throne of the Parthian kings
		10.1.2 Small sculptures found in Nisa
	10.2 Rock reliefs
	10.3 Stone reliefs
	10.4 Mural painting – frescoes
	10.5 Sculptures
	10.6 Jewellery: torque, earrings, belt buckles and other art
	10.7 Parthian vessels – bowls – glass
	Notes
11 The Parthian Empire and its religions
	11.1 An overview of Zoroastrianism and the Avesta
		11.1.1 The religious concept of Zoroastrianism
		11.1.2 Magi – priests of the Medes – the wise men from the east
		11.1.3 Zoroastrianism in Achaemenid times
		11.1.4 References to the Zoroastrianism of the Parthians
		11.1.5 Mithra
		11.1.6 Anahita
		11.1.7 Nana – Nanaia
		11.1.8 Ardochscho (= Ashi)
		11.1.9 Verethragna – Heracles
		11.1.10 Khvarenah
		11.1.11 The sacred fire of the Zoroastrians – archaeological finds
		11.1.12 Fire cult: archaeological evidence in the Parthian Empire
		11.1.13 Funerals performed by Zoroastrians
		11.1.14 Burials in Parthian times
	11.2 Iconography of Parthian coins – references to the Zoroastrian faith
		11.2.1 Deities on Parthian coins
		11.2.2 Phase 1: Arsaces I to Phraates I (c. 247–171 BC)
		11.2.3 Phase 2: Mithradates I to Phraates III (c. 165–70 BC)
		11.2.4 Phase 3: Phraates III to Vonones II (c. 70 BC–51 AD)
		11.2.5 Phase 4: Vologases I to Artabanus IV (c. 51 AD to the end of the Parthian Empire in 224 AD)
		11.2.6 Inscriptions with divine epithets
		11.2.7 The transformation from the ‘Hellenistic Tyche’ to the ‘Parthian Tyche’
		11.2.8 Gods in Hellenistic robes – Parthian deities?
		11.2.9 The ‘Parthian Tyche’ – which Zoroastrian goddess is meant to be portrayed?
		11.2.10 Summary: Zoroastrianism among the Parthians
	11.3 Manichaeism – religion with Parthian origins
	11.4 Mithraism – Mithras cult
	11.5 Judaism in Parthia
	11.6 Christianity in Parthia: the proselytising of the Apostle Thomas
	Notes
Bibliography
Recommended websites
General Index
Names Index
Geographical Names Index