The Nature of Geomorphological Hazards in the Nepal Himalaya

Series Editors’ Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1 Introduction
	Abstract
	1.1	The Varied Natural Environment of the Nepal Himalaya
		1.1.1	Dynamics of Geomorphic Processes Related to Natural Hazards
		1.1.2	Geological and Orographical Division of Nepal
		1.1.3	Climate, Glaciers and Rivers of Nepal
		1.1.4	Ecosystems, Flora and Fauna of Nepal
	1.2	Progress in the Exploration of the High Mountain Environment
		1.2.1	Global Trends
		1.2.2	Natural Hazards of the Nepal Himalaya
	Abbreviations
	References
2 Treatise on Remarkable Morphogenesis of the Nepal Himalaya
	Abstract
	2.1	Dynamics of Mountain Building During the Collisional Orogeny
	2.2	Landform Evolution and Morphogenetic Processes in the Quaternary
		2.2.1	Geomorphological Record of Continuing Orogeny
		2.2.2	Extraordinary Effects of Climate-Morphogenetic Processes
	2.3	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
3 Development of the Map Representation of the Nepal Himalaya Up to the End of Nineteenth Century
	Abstract
	3.1	A Brief Overview of the Map Representation of The Himalaya
	3.2	Research Methodology for Base Maps and Analysis of Literature
		3.2.1	Map Sources
		3.2.2	Analysis of References
	3.3	History of the Map Representation of the Himalaya with Illustrations
	3.4	Discussion Focused on the Historical Map Representations of the Nepal Himalaya
	3.5	Conclusions
	Appendix 3.1	Chronological Overview of Thirty-Six Selected Maps of Asia, India, Nepal and the Himalaya Until the End of the Nineteenth Century and Their Online Availability
	Abbreviations
	References
4 Diverse Perception of Natural Hazards and Disasters by the Inhabitants of the Himalaya
	Abstract
	4.1	A Brief History of Changes in the Understanding of the Origins of Natural Disasters
		4.1.1	Spiritual Sense and Solace of Ancient Mythology
		4.1.2	The Epoch of Exploration of the Unique and Threatening Himalayan Environments
	4.2	The Extreme Geomorphological Hazards on High Himalayan Ridges
		4.2.1	Climatic Conditions and Weather in the High Himalaya
		4.2.2	The Current Environment and Geomorphic Processes on the High Himalayan Ridges
		4.2.3	Extreme Risks and Disasters on the Himalayan Crests and Rock Faces
	4.3	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
5 Natural Hazards, Risks and Disasters in Nepal: Insights from Bibliometric Analysis of Research Papers and Disaster Databases
	Abstract
	5.1	Introduction
	5.2	Data and Methods
		5.2.1	WOS Database and Analysis
			5.2.1.1 Natural Hazards Classification and Definition of the WOS Search Query Chains
			5.2.1.2 Dataset Analysis
		5.2.2	DesInventar and EM-DAT Databases of Natural Disasters
	5.3	Results and Discussion
		5.3.1	General Characteristics of Analysed Dataset
			5.3.1.1 Researched Hazards
			5.3.1.2 Geographies
		5.3.2	Content Analysis
		5.3.3	Insights from Two Disaster Databases
	5.4	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
6 Mass Density Variations of Landforms, Active Orogeny and Erosion in the Nepal Himalaya Derived from the Earth Gravity Model EIGEN 6C4
	Abstract
	6.1	Introduction
		6.1.1	Definition of the Topic
		6.1.2	Methods and Course of Research Work
	6.2	Theoretical Aspects of the Earth Gravity Model EIGEN 6C4
	6.3	Geomorphological Implications of Components of the Gravity Gradient Tensor Derived from the EIGEN 6C4 in the Nepal Himalaya
		6.3.1	Geomorphic Phenomena Expressed by the Free-Air Gravity Anomaly, Second-Order Derivatives of the Gravitational Potential and Their Invariants
		6.3.2	Geomorphic Phenomena Expressed by the Virtual Deformations of the Ellipse of Deformation
		6.3.3	Geomorphic Phenomena Expressed by the Gravity Strike Angles and Their Combination with the Other Components of the Gravity Gradient Tensor
	6.4	Discussion
		6.4.1	Methodical Aspects
		6.4.2	Interpretation Challenges
	6.5	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
7 Potentially Dangerous Moraine-Dammed Glacial Lakes for Outburst in the Nepal Himalaya
	Abstract
	7.1	Introduction
	7.2	Background
		7.2.1	Some Historical Overview of GLOF Events in the Nepal Himalaya
		7.2.2	Role of Remote Sensing Data and Area Limited Application
		7.2.3	Moraine Dammed Glacial Lakes and GLOFs
	7.3	Study Area
	7.4	Materials Used
	7.5	Methodology
		7.5.1	Lake Identification and Monitoring Approach
		7.5.2	Correction Method for Area Calculation
		7.5.3	Implementation
	7.6	Results and Discussions
		7.6.1	Basic Statistical Analysis in Surface Area Change
		7.6.2	Assessment Over the Time
		7.6.3	Location-Wise Analysis Over the Entire Study Area
	7.7	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
8 Geomorphic Implications of Late Pleistocene Surficial Sand Deposits in the Lower Khumbu Region, Nepal
	Abstract
	8.1	Introduction
	8.2	Background
	8.3	Geomorphic Setting
		8.3.1	Namche Bazaar—Sanasa
		8.3.2	Phortse
		8.3.3	Thyangboche
	8.4	Site Descriptions and Luminescence Sampling
		8.4.1	Namche Bazar—Sanasa
		8.4.2	Phortse
		8.4.3	Tyangboche
	8.5	Materials and Methods
		8.5.1	Field
		8.5.2	Luminescence Dating
			8.5.2.1 Sample Processing
			8.5.2.2 Dose Rate Processing and Calculation
			8.5.2.3 Infrared Luminescence Measurements
			8.5.2.4 Equivalent Dose (DE) and Age Calculation
	8.6	Results
	8.7	Age Interpretation and Discussion
		8.7.1	Namche Bazaar
		8.7.2	Sanasa
		8.7.3	Phortse
		8.7.4	Thyangboche
	8.8	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
9 Geomorphic Hazards in the Makalu Barun Area of the East Nepal Himalaya
	Abstract
	9.1	Introduction
		9.1.1	Aims and Methods of the Study
		9.1.2	A Brief Survey of Geomorphological Evolution in the Makalu Barun Area
	9.2	Recent Geomorphic Processes in the Makalu Barun Area
		9.2.1	Extreme Glacial Zone
		9.2.2	Glacial Zone
		9.2.3	Periglacial Zone
		9.2.4	Seasonally Cold/Warm Humid Zone
	9.3	Discussion
	9.4	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
10 An Actual Biogeographical Hazard of the Expansion of Small Mammals and Their Parasites Linked with Climate Changes in the East Nepal Himalaya
	Abstract
	List of Abbreviation
	10.1	Introduction
	10.2	A Brief Description of the High-Mountain Environment
		10.2.1	Geomorphological Patterns and Geological Structure
		10.2.2	Diversity of Climatic Conditions and Related Biogeographical Zonality
	10.3	The Occurrence of Small Terrestrial Mammals, Birds, and Their Parasites in the Makalu Barun Area (Milan Daniel)
		10.3.1	Altitudinal Distribution of Small Terrestrial Mammals
		10.3.2	Examination of Trapped Animals for the Presence of Infestation
	10.4	The Late Quaternary Migration of Small Terrestrial Mammals Induced by Changes of the Environment in the East Nepal Himalaya
	10.5	Conclusions
	References
11 The Role of Natural Hazards and Socio-Cultural Factors in Shaping the History of Settlement Locations in the Limi Valley, North-West Nepal
	Abstract
	11.1	Introduction
	11.2	Study Area
	11.3	Materials and Methods
	11.4	Results
		11.4.1	Inventory of Natural Hazards in the Limi Valley
			11.4.1.1 Rockfalls, Debris Flows and Landslides
			11.4.1.2 Avalanches and Heavy Snowfalls
			11.4.1.3 Floods
			11.4.1.4 Earthquakes
		11.4.2	Changes of Settlement Location in Limi
		11.4.3	Perceptions of Hazards
	11.5	Discussion
	11.6	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
12 Current State of Research on and Response to Geomorphological Hazards in Nepal
	Abstract
	12.1	Introduction
		12.1.1	A Brief History of Geomorphological Hazards Research in Nepal
		12.1.2	Landscape of Response to Geomorphological Hazards
			12.1.2.1 Governmental Response
			12.1.2.2 Academic Response
			12.1.2.3 Intergovernmental, Non-governmental and International Response
	12.2	Current State of Research on Geomorphological Hazards in Nepal
		12.2.1	GLOFs
		12.2.2	Landslides
	12.3	General Challenges in Hazard Management in Nepal
	12.4	Conclusions
	Abbreviations
	References
13 Conclusions: The Dynamics and Complexity of Geomorphological Hazards in the Nepal Himalaya
	Abstract
	13.1	Specifics of Geomorphological Hazards in the Himalaya
	13.2	Challenges of Geomorphological Hazards in the Extreme Environments
	Abbreviation
	References
Index