The nature and properties of soils

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
1 The Soils Around Us
	1.1 What Ecosystem Services Do Soils Perform?
	1.2 How Do Soils Support Plant Growth?
	1.3 How Do Soils Regulate Water Supplies?
	1.4 How Do Soils Recycle Raw Materials?
	1.5 How Do Soils Modify the Atmosphere?
	1.6 What Lives in the Soil Habitat?
	1.7 Soil as an Engineering Medium
	1.8 The Pedosphere and the Critical Zone?
	1.9 Soils as Natural Bodies
	1.10 The Soil Profile and Its Layers (Horizons)
	1.11 Topsoil and Subsoil
	1.12 Soil—Interface of Air, Minerals, Water, and Life
	1.13 What are the Mineral (Inorganic) Constituents of Soils?
	1.14 The Nature of Soil Organic Matter
	1.15 Soil Water—Dynamic and Complex
	1.16 Soil Air: A Changing Mixture of Gases
	1.17 How Do Soil Components Interact to Supply Nutrients to Plants?
	1.18 How Do Plant Roots Obtain Nutrients?
	1.19 Soil Health, Degradation, and Resilience
	1.20 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
2 Formation of Soils from Parent Materials
	2.1 Weathering of Rocks and Minerals
	2.2 What Environmental Factors Influence Soil Formation?
	2.3 Parent Materials
	2.4 How Does Climate Affect Soil Formation?
	2.5 How Do Living Organisms (Including People) Affect Soil Formation?
	2.6 How Does Topography Affect Soil Formation?
	2.7 How Does Time Affect Soil Formation?
	2.8 Four Basic Processes of Soil Formation
	2.9 The Soil Profile
	2.10 Urban Soils
	2.11 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
3 Soil Classification
	3.1 Concept of Individual Soils
	3.2 Soil Taxonomy: A Comprehensive Classification System
	3.3 Categories and Nomenclature of Soil Taxonomy
	3.4 Soil Orders
	3.5 Entisols (Recent: Little If Any Profile Development)
	3.6 Inceptisols (Few Diagnostic Features: Inception of B Horizon)
	3.7 Andisols (Volcanic Ash Soils)
	3.8 Gelisols (Permafrost and Frost Churning)
	3.9 Histosols (Organic Soils Without Permafrost)
	3.10 Aridisols (Dry Soils)
	3.11 Vertisols (Dark, Swelling, and Cracking Clays)
	3.12 Mollisols (Dark, Soft Soils of Grasslands)
	3.13 Alfisols (Argillic or Natric Horizon, Moderately Leached)
	3.14 Ultisols (Argillic Horizon, Highly Leached)
	3.15 Spodosols (Acid, Sandy, Forest Soils, Highly Leached)
	3.16 Oxisols (Oxic Horizon, Highly Weathered)
	3.17 Lower-Level Categories in Soil Taxonomy
	3.18 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
4 Soil Architecture and Physical Properties
	4.1 Soil Color
	4.2 Soil Texture (Size Distribution of Soil Particles)
	4.3 Soil Textural Classes
	4.4 Structure of Mineral Soils
	4.5 Formation and Stabilization of Soil Aggregates
	4.6 Tillage and Structural Management of Soils
	4.7 Soil Density
	4.8 Pore Space of Mineral Soils
	4.9 Soil Properties Relevant to Engineering Uses
	4.10 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
5 Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior
	5.1 Structure and Related Properties of Water
	5.2 Capillary Fundamentals and Soil Water
	5.3 Soil Water Energy Concepts
	5.4 Soil Water Content and Soil Water Potential
	5.5 The Flow of Liquid Water in Soil
	5.6 Infiltration and Percolation
	5.7 Water Vapor Movement in Soils
	5.8 Qualitative Description of Soil Wetness
	5.9 Factors Affecting Amount of Plant-Available Soil Water
	5.10 Mechanisms by Which Plants are Supplied with Water
	5.11 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
6 Soil and the Hydrologic Cycle
	6.1 The Global Hydrologic Cycle
	6.2 Fate of Incoming Water
	6.3 The Soil–Plant–Atmosphere Continuum (SPAC)
	6.4 Control of ET
	6.5 Liquid Losses of Water from the Soil
	6.6 Percolation and Groundwater
	6.7 Enhancing Soil Drainage
	6.8 Septic Tank Drain Fields
	6.9 Irrigation Principles and Practices
	6.10 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
7 Soil Aeration and Temperature
	7.1 Soil Aeration—The Process
	7.2 Means of Characterizing Soil Aeration
	7.3 Oxidation–Reduction (Redox) Potential
	7.4 Factors Affecting Soil Aeration and Eh
	7.5 Ecological Effects of Soil Aeration
	7.6 Soil Aeration in Urban Landscapes
	7.7 Wetlands and Their Poorly Aerated Soils
	7.8 Processes Affected by Soil Temperature
	7.9 Absorption and Loss of Solar Energy
	7.10 Thermal Properties of Soils
	7.11 Soil Temperature Control
	7.12 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
8 The Colloidal Fraction: Seat of Soil Chemical and Physical Activity
	8.1 General Properties and Types of Soil Colloids
	8.2 Fundamentals of Layer Silicate Clay Structure
	8.3 Mineralogical Organization of Silicate Clays
	8.4 Structural Characteristics of Nonsilicate Colloids
	8.5 Genesis and Geographic Distribution of Soil Colloids
	8.6 Sources of Charges on Soil Colloids
	8.7 Adsorption of Cations and Anions
	8.8 Cation Exchange Reactions
	8.9 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
	8.10 Exchangeable Cations in Field Soils
	8.11 Anion Exchange
	8.12 Sorption of Pesticides and Groundwater Contamination
	8.13 Binding of Biomolecules to Clay and Humus
	8.14 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
9 Soil Acidity
	9.1 What Processes Cause Soil Acidification?
	9.2 Role of Aluminum in Soil Acidity
	9.3 Pools of Soil Acidity
	9.4 Buffering of pH in Soils
	9.5 How Can We Measure Soil ph?
	9.6 Human-Influenced Soil Acidification
	9.7 Biological Effects of Soil pH
	9.8 Raising Soil pH by Liming
	9.9 Alternative Ways to Ameliorate the Ill Effects of Soil Acidity
	9.10 Lowering Soil pH
	9.11 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
10 Soils of Dry Regions: Alkalinity, Salinity, and Sodicity
	10.1 Characteristics and Problems of Dry Region Soils
	10.2 Causes of High Soil pH (Alkalinity)
	10.3 Development of Salt-Affected Soils
	10.4 Measuring Salinity and Sodicity
	10.5 Classes of Salt-Affected Soils
	10.6 Physical Degradation of Soil by Sodic Chemical Conditions
	10.7 Biological Impacts of Salt-Affected Soils
	10.8 Water-Quality Considerations for Irrigation
	10.9 Reclamation of Saline Soils
	10.10 Reclamation of Saline–Sodic and Sodic Soils
	10.11 Management of Reclaimed Soils
	10.12 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
11 Organisms and Ecology of the Soil
	11.1 The Diversity of Organisms in the Soil
	11.2 Organisms in Action
	11.3 Abundance, Biomass, and Metabolic Activity
	11.4 Earthworms
	11.5 Ants and Termites
	11.6 Soil Microanimals
	11.7 Plant Roots
	11.8 Soil Algae
	11.9 Soil Fungi
	11.10 Soil Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
	11.11 Conditions Affecting the Growth and Activity of Soil Microorganisms
	11.12 Beneficial Effects of Soil Organisms on Plant Communities
	11.13 Soil Organisms and Plant Damage
	11.14 Ecological Relationships among Soil Organisms
	11.15 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
12 Soil Organic Matter
	12.1 The Global Carbon Cycle
	12.2 Organic Decomposition in Soils
	12.3 Factors Controlling Rates of Residue Decomposition and Mineralization
	12.4 Genesis and Nature of Soil Organic Matter and Humus
	12.5 Influences of Organic Matter on Plant Growth and Soil Function
	12.6 Amounts and Quality of Organic Matter in Soils
	12.7 Carbon Balance in the Soil–Plant–Atmosphere System
	12.8 Environmental Factors Influencing Soil Organic Carbon Levels
	12.9 Soil Organic Matter Management
	12.10 Soils and Climate Change
	12.11 Composts and Composting
	12.12 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
13 Nitrogen and Sulfur Economy of Soils
	13.1 Influence of Nitrogen on Plant Growth and Development
	13.2 Distribution of Nitrogen and the Nitrogen Cycle
	13.3 Immobilization and Mineralization
	13.4 Dissolved Organic Nitrogen
	13.5 Ammonium Fixation by Clay Minerals
	13.6 Ammonia Volatilization
	13.7 Nitrification
	13.8 Gaseous Losses by Denitrification and Anammox
	13.9 Biological Nitrogen Fixation
	13.10 Symbiotic Fixation with Legumes
	13.11 Symbiotic Fixation with Nonlegumes
	13.12 Nonsymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation
	13.13 Nitrogen Deposition from the Atmosphere
	13.14 The Nitrate Leaching Problem
	13.15 Practical Management of Soil Nitrogen
	13.16 Importance of Sulfur
	13.17 Natural Sources of Sulfur
	13.18 The Sulfur Cycle
	13.19 Behavior of Sulfur Compounds in Soils
	13.20 Sulfur Oxidation and Reduction
	13.21 Sulfur Retention and Exchange
	13.22 Sulfur and Soil Fertility Maintenance
	13.23 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
14 Soil Phosphorus and Potassium
	14.1 Phosphorus in Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility
	14.2 Effects of Phosphorus on Environmental Quality
	14.3 The Phosphorus Cycle
	14.4 Organic Phosphorus in Soils
	14.5 Inorganic Phosphorus in Soils
	14.6 Solubility of Inorganic Soil Phosphorus
	14.7 Phosphorus-Fixation Capacity of Soils
	14.8 Plant Strategies for Adequate Phosphorus Acquisition from Soils
	14.9 Practical Phosphorus Management
	14.10 Potassium: Nature and Ecological Roles
	14.11 Potassium in Plant and Animal Nutrition
	14.12 The Potassium Cycle
	14.13 The Potassium Problem in Soil Fertility
	14.14 Forms and Availability of Potassium in Soils
	14.15 Factors Affecting Potassium Fixation in Soils
	14.16 Practical Aspects of Potassium Management
	14.17 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
15 Calcium, Magnesium, Silicon, and Trace Elements
	15.1 Calcium as an Essential Nutrient
	15.2 Magnesium as a Plant Nutrient
	15.3 Silicon in Soil–Plant Ecology
	15.4 Deficiency Versus Toxicity
	15.5 Micronutrient Roles in Plants
	15.6 Sources of Micronutrients
	15.7 Factors Influencing the Availability of the Trace Element Cations
	15.8 Organic Compounds as Chelates
	15.9 Factors Influencing the Availability of the Trace Element Anions
	15.10 Soil Management and Trace Element Needs
	15.11 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
16 Practical Nutrient Management
	16.1 Goals of Nutrient Management
	16.2 Nutrients as Pollutants
	16.3 Natural Ecosystem Nutrient Cycles
	16.4 Recycling Nutrients Through Animal Manures
	16.5 Industrial and Municipal By-Products
	16.6 Practical Utilization of Organic Nutrient Sources
	16.7 Inorganic Commercial Fertilizers
	16.8 Fertilizer Application Methods
	16.9 Timing of Fertilizer Application
	16.10 Diagnostic Tools and Methods
	16.11 Soil Analysis
	16.12 Site-Index Approach to Phosphorus Management
	16.13 Some Advances and Challenges in Fertilizer Management
	16.14 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
17 Soil Erosion and Its Control
	17.1 Significance of Soil Erosion and Land Degradation
	17.2 On-Site and Off-Site impacts of Accelerated Soil Erosion
	17.3 Mechanics of Water Erosion
	17.4 Models to Predict the Extent of Water-Induced Erosion
	17.5 Factors Affecting Interrill and Rill Erosion
	17.6 Conservation Tillage
	17.7 Vegetative Barriers
	17.8 Control of Gully Erosion and Mass Wasting
	17.9 Control of Accelerated Erosion on Range- and Forestland
	17.10 Erosion and Sediment Control on Construction Sites
	17.11 Wind Erosion: Importance and Factors Affecting It
	17.12 Predicting and Controlling Wind Erosion
	17.13 Tillage Erosion
	17.14 Land Capability Classification as a Guide to Conservation
	17.15 Progress in Soil Conservation
	17.16 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
18 Soils and Chemical Pollution
	18.1 Toxic Organic Chemicals
	18.2 Kinds of Organic Contaminants
	18.3 Behavior of Organic Chemicals in Soil
	18.4 Effects of Pesticides on Soil Organisms
	18.5 Remediation of Soils Contaminated with Organic Chemicals
	18.6 Soil Contamination with Toxic Inorganic Substances
	18.7 Potential Hazards of Chemicals in Sewage Sludge
	18.8 Prevention and Remediation of Inorganic Soil Contamination
	18.9 Landfills
	18.10 Radionuclides in Soil
	18.11 Radon Gas from Soils
	18.12 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
19 Geographic Soils Information
	19.1 Soil Spatial Variability in the Field
	19.2 Techniques and Tools for Mapping Soils
	19.3 Modern Technology for Soil Investigations
	19.4 Remote Sensing in Soil Survey
	19.5 Making a Soil Survey
	19.6 Using Soil Surveys
	19.7 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
	19.8 Digital Soil Maps: Properties or Polygons?
	19.9 GIS, GPS, and Precision Agriculture
	19.10 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
20 Prospects for Soil Health in the Anthropocene
	20.1 The Concepts of Soil Health and Soil Quality
	20.2 Soil Resistance and Resilience
	20.3 Soils and Global Ecosystem Services
	20.4 Using Plants to Improve Soil Health
	20.5 Feeding the Human Population
	20.6 Intensified Agriculture—the Green Revolution
	20.7 Impacts of Vastly Increased Ratios of People to Land
	20.8 Sustainable Agriculture in Developed Countries
	20.9 Biochar: Hype or Hope for Soil Quality?
	20.10 Organic Farming Systems
	20.11 Sustainable Agriculture Systems for Resource-Poor Farmers
	20.12 Conclusion
	Study Questions
	References
Appendix A World Reference Base, Canadian, and Australian Soil Classification Systems
Appendix B SI Units, Conversion Factors, Periodic Table of the Elements, and Plant Names
Glossary of Soil Science Terms
Index
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