The Movement of Venezuelans to the Americas and the Caribbean in the 21st Century

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part I: Contextual Frameworks of Migration
	Chapter 1: The Migration of Venezuelans in the Early Twenty-First Century: Understanding the Contextual Frameworks
		The Context of Migration
		Drivers of Migration
		Understanding Venezuelan Migration
		Background to the Book
		Aims of the Book
		Book Overview
		Concluding Thoughts
		References
	Chapter 2: The Psychology of Caribbean Migration: Situated Contexts, Commonalities and Challenges
		Introduction
			The Process of Migration
			Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Framework
			Caribbean Migration
		Discussion
			Individual, Structural and Socio-political Factors
			Acculturation in a Caribbean Context
			Recommendations
		Conclusion
		References
Part II: Crime and Criminality
	Chapter 3: Applying Frequency, Associational and Conclusion Analysis to the Study of Venezuelan Immigrant Crimes in Trinidad and Tobago
		Introduction
		Definition of Concepts
		FAC Model and Framework
			The FAC Model
			FAC as Framework
			Venezuelan Immigration in the second decade of the 21st century
			Frequency Analysis of Crime Data for Venezuelan Immigrants in Trinidad and Tobago
			Analysis of crime frequencies for Venezuelan Immigrants by year in Trinidad and Tobago
			Analysis of Crime Frequencies by Demographics
			Associational Analysis
		Conclusion Analysis: The Myth of Venezuelan Immigrant Criminality in Latin America
			Immigrant Criminality in Developed Countries
			Social and Economic Determinants of Immigrant Criminality in Developed Countries
			Media and Immigrant Criminal Stereotyping
			High Rates of Immigrant Criminality
			Policy Recommendations
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: Threats to Trinidad and Tobago’s Security: An Assessment of Venezuelan Immigrants’ Involvement in Crime
		Introduction
		Venezuelan Immigrants in Trinidad and Tobago
			Background
			Migrants and Criminal Activity
			Venezuelan Immigrants and the Minority Threat Perspective
		Methodology
			Data
			Dependent Variable
			Analytical Technique
		Results
		Discussion and Conclusion
		References
Part III: Migrant Experiences and Conditions
	Chapter 5: The Experiences, Challenges and Choices of Venezuelan Migrants in Trinidad
		Introduction
		Review of Literature
			“South–South Migration”
		Theoretical Framework
			Application of Rational Choice Theory to the Phenomenon
		Methodology
			Sampling Strategy
		Analysis
		Findings
			Theme 1: Trepidations about Venezuela
			Theme 2: Making a Difference with Remittances
			Theme 3: Barriers to Settlement
			Theme 4: Safety Concerns in Trinidad
		Implications for Practice
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6: Providing Healthcare to Venezuelan Migrants in the Small Island State of Trinidad: Physicians’ Lived Experiences
		Introduction
		Health Status of Migrants
		Healthcare and Physicians’ Response
			Clinical Decision Making
		Methods
			Study Design
		Participants and Recruitment Activities
			Data Collection
			Data Analysis
			Researcher Reflectivity
		Findings
			Physicians’ Emotional Response
			A Complex System and Culture
		System Reform
		Discussion
		Strengths and Limitations of the Study
		Conclusion and Implications for Practice, Research, and Policy
		References
Part IV: Impacts and Implications of Migration
	Chapter 7: The Impact of Venezuelan Migration on the Labour Market in Trinidad and Tobago
		Introduction
		Long Run Causal Effect on Economic Growth
		The Rybczynski Theorem to Examine the Impact of Venezuelan Migrant Workers on Economic Growth in Trinidad and Tobago
		Impact of the Venezuelan Migration on the Trinidad and Tobago Labour Market
			Labour Market in Trinidad and Tobago
		Labour Market Implications of Venezuelan Migrants
			Decreased Wages for Unskilled Labour
			Increased Labour Force Participation
				Change in the Output Mix
				Reduce Economic Impact of the Aging Population
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: A Case Study of Social Work Practice with Venezuelan Migrants in Trinidad and Tobago: Implications for Social Work in the Anglophone Caribbean
		Introduction
			Social Work Practice and Migration
			Contextualising Venezuelan Migration to Trinidad and Tobago
			Literature Review
		Methodology
			Findings
			Research Question #1: What Are the Issues or Challenges Experienced by Venezuelan Migrants Which Cause Them to Seek Social Work Intervention?
				Psychological Challenges and Trauma
				Living Conditions of Venezuelan Migrants
				Housing
				Health and Well-being
				IPV and Other Forms of Violence
			Research Question 2: What Barriers do Social Workers Encounter in Delivering Services to Venezuelan Migrants in Trinidad and Tobago?
				Agencies’ Policies
		Discussion
			Issues or Challenges Which Cause Migrants to Seek Social Work Intervention
				“What Are Social Workers’ Responses to the Needs of Venezuelan Migrants in Trinidad and Tobago?”
				Recommendations and Implications for Social Work Practice, Policy and Education
			Social Work Education
			Social Work Practice
		Strengths and Limitations of the Study
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: Caribbean Security in an Era of Mass Migration from Venezuela: Implications for the Southern Caribbean
		Introduction
		The Caribbean’s Current Migration Management Strategy: Strategic Indifference
		Moving Beyond Ambivalence: Forensic Political Economy
		Venezuelan Migration Crisis? What Crisis? Why Crisis?
		A Genealogy of Monoculture and Migration
		Strategic Option 1: Critical Accounting
		Strategic Option 2: Neo-Mercantilism
		Strategic Option 3: Decentralisation
		Discussion and Conclusion
		References
Part V: Attitudes Towards Migrants
	Chapter 10: “Trinbago Trumpism”: A Digital Ethnography on Local Attitudes Towards Venezuelan Migrants in Trinidad and Tobago
		Introduction
		Colonial Attitudes and Pre-independence Migrants
			Characteristics of Colonial Attitudes
			Mixture and Colourism
			Transatlantic Context: United States, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago
		Colonial Continuities and Post-independence Migrants
			US Influence
			The Beginning of Trumpism
			Venezuelan Migrant Influx
			Trinidad and Tobago: Migrant Policy and Protocols
		Trinbago Trumpism (TT)
			Characteristics of Trinbago Trumpism: 1. Send Them Home
			Characteristics of Trinbago Trumpism: 2. They are Criminals
			Characteristics of Trinbago Trumpism: 3. Trinidad and Tobago First
		Final Thoughts
		References
	Chapter 11: We’re Okay with Them but How Many More?: Trinidadians’ Knowledge, Attitudes and Perceptions of Venezuelan Migrants
		Introduction
			Migration in the Caribbean
			Significance of This Research
		Methodology
			Participants
			Data Analysis
		Results
			Knowledge of and Familiarity with Migrants in Their Communities
			Interaction with Migrants
			Attitudes Towards and Experiences with Migrants
				Role of Demographics
			Evolving Perceptions, Views and Opinions of Migrants
			Attitude and Perception Index
		Discussion
		Limitations
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 12: Venezuelans in Pursuit of the Goldilocks Policy Environment in Trinidad and Tobago
		Introduction
		Literature Review
		Methodological Approach
		Data Collection and Data Analysis
			Participants
		Findings
			Theme 1: Proximity
			Theme 2: Ease of Entry
			Theme 3: The Economy and Employment Opportunities
			Theme 4: Idolisation of Venezuelan Women
			Theme 5: Conditions of Detention
			Theme 6: Non-recognition of Asylum Seeker Documents
			Theme 7: Slow Process of Deportation
		Discussion
			Proximity and Porous Borders
			Immigration Laws and Policies
			Public Perception of Venezuelan Illegal Immigrants in Trinidad and Tobago
		Conclusion
		References
Part VI: The Voice of Venezuelan Migrants
	Chapter 13: Migration Experiences during a Pandemic: An Investigation into the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Migrant Venezuelan Women in Trinidad and Tobago
		Introduction
			COVID-19 and Trinidad and Tobago
		Literature Review
			Living Conditions of Migrants during the Pandemic
			Social, Psychological, and Emotional Impact of COVID-19
			Gender-Based Violence
			Theoretical Framework
		Methodology
			Data Analysis
			Ethics and Protection from Harm
			Limitations
			Findings
				Participants
			Findings
				Impact of COVID-19 on Venezuelan Migrant Women in Trinidad and Tobago
					Psychological Impact
				Impact on Personal Health
			Living Conditions
				Housing
			Gender-Based Violence
			Xenophobia and Cultural Differences
			Coping Strategies Used to Mitigate Challenges Brought on by COVID-19 Restrictions
				Adaptive Coping Skills
				Maladaptive Coping
				Sources of Support Available to Migrant Venezuelan Women
					Social Services Protection
				Impact of COVID-19 on the Migration Patterns of Female Venezuelan Migrants in Trinidad and Tobago
		Discussion
		Conclusion and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 14: An Examination of the Vulnerable Venezuelan Population in Trinidad and Tobago: Some Considerations
		Introduction
		The Issues
		Theoretical Considerations
			Perspectives from the Venezuelan Migrant
			A Human Rights and Gender-Based Approach
			Policy Considerations
		References
	Untitled
	Chapter 15: Navigating Gender-Based Violence, Exploitation, Discrimination and the COVID-19 Pandemic: Voices of Venezuelan refugees in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana
		Introduction and Context
		Migration Within the Caribbean Region
		Gender-Based Violence in Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana
		Gender-Based Violence and the COVID-19 Pandemic
		Discrimination and Sexual Exploitation
		Methodology
		Findings
			Social Support and Community Safety
			Child Welfare
			Social Integration
		Discussion
		Recommendations
			Legislation and Policy
			Community and Education Interventions
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 16: Vaccine Hesitancy Among Migrant Populations Residing in Trinidad and Tobago: Does the Health Belief Model Predict Uptake of COVID-19 Vaccines for Migrant Children?
		Introduction
		Literature Review
		Vaccine Hesitancy Among Migrant Populations
		Theoretical Models
		Research Questions
		Method
			Sample
			Data Analysis
		Results
			Quantitative Survey
				General Demographics
				COVID Vaccination Status of Respondents’ Children
				Perceived Susceptibility
				Perceived Severity
				Perceived Benefits of Being Vaccinated
				Reasons for Not Wanting to Vaccinate Their Children with the COVID-19 Vaccine
				Perceived Barriers
			Cues to Action
			Qualitative Component
			Findings from the Qualitative Survey
				Uncomfortable Vaccinating Young Children
				Need for Information
				Family and Friends Were Trusted Sources of Information
		Discussion
		Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: Moving Stories: A Narrative Study of Venezuelan Migrants Living in the Cayman Islands
		Introduction
		Methodology
		The Participants
		Findings
			Theme 1: Escaping the Situation
				Subtheme 1: Wanting a Better Life
				Subtheme 2: Others Have Come and Are Doing Well
				Subtheme 3: Limited Access to Food and Lack of Basic Needs
			Theme 2: Starting Over
				Subtheme 1: Language
				Subtheme 2: Leaving Loved Ones Behind
				Subtheme 3: Harsh New Realities
			Theme 3: Migration Can Be Hard
				Subtheme 1: You Have to Be Strong
				Subtheme 2: Migration Changes You
				Subtheme 3: Migration Can Be Rewarding
				Subtheme 4: Advice
		Conclusion
		References
Part VII: Closing Arguments
	Chapter 18: Conclusion
		Introduction
		Concluding Thoughts
		References
Index