The Metal Road of the Eastern Eurasian Steppe: The Formation of the Xiongnu Confederation and the Silk Road

Foreword
Preface
	The Geography of the Eurasian Steppe
	The History of Research on the Relations Between the Northern Zone of China and the Eurasian Steppe
	About the Book
Contents
About the Authors
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Plates
1 The Germination of Northern Bronzes
	1.1 Different Bronze Systems in Eurasia
		1.1.1 Eastern Bronze Culture System
		1.1.2 Western Bronze Culture System
		1.1.3 Bronze Culture System During the Late Prehistoric Period
	1.2 Research Background Beyond China Related to Chinese Early Bronzes
		1.2.1 Early Bronzes of the Oasis Culture in Southern Central Asia
			1.2.1.1 The Namazga Culture Sequence
			1.2.1.2 The Hissar Culture Sequence
			1.2.1.3 The Sialk Culture Sequence
		1.2.2 Early Bronzes of the Steppe Culture
			1.2.2.1 The Pontic Area
			1.2.2.2 The Caucasus Region
			1.2.2.3 The Southern Ural Forest Steppe and the Altai-Sayan Steppe
		1.2.3 Seriation of Some Early Bronzes
			1.2.3.1 Evolution from Flat Copper Axes to Axes
			1.2.3.2 Evolution from Solid Tanged Spears with to Socketed Spears
	1.3 The Formation of Different Systems of Early Chinese Bronzes
		1.3.1 Central Plain Bronze System During the Xia Period
		1.3.2 Northern Bronze System During the Xia Period
			1.3.2.1 Bronzes of the Qijia Culture
			1.3.2.2 Bronzes of the Zhukaigou Culture
			1.3.2.3 Bronzes of the Lower Xiajiadian Culture and the Datuotou Culture
		1.3.3 Early Bronzes of the Northwestern Bronze System During the Xia Period
		1.3.4 The Relationship Among the Bronzes of the Central Plain and the Northern Zone and Those of the Northwestern Bronze System During the Xia Period
	1.4 Relationship Between the Early Bronzes from China and those Outside of China
		1.4.1 Relationship Between the Bronzes of the Qijia Culture and those Outside of China
		1.4.2 Relationship Between the Bronzes of the Siba Culture, the Tianshanbeilu Culture, and Those Beyond the Borders of China
		1.4.3 The Prototype of the Northern Zone of China Mongolian Plateau Metallurgical Province
	References
2 The Expansion of Steppe Culture During the Second Millennium B.C.
	2.1 Andronovo Culture Complex and Seima-Turbino Complex
		2.1.1 Andronovo Culture Complex and Socketed Battle-Axes in Steppe
			2.1.1.1 The Cultural Background to the Formation of the Andronovo Culture Complex—The Sintashta Culture
			2.1.1.2 Main Characteristics of the Andronovo Culture Complex
			2.1.1.3 Socketed Battle-Axes in the Steppe
			2.1.1.4 Socketed Battle-Axes in the Near East
		2.1.2 Characteristics, Dating and Population of the Seima-Turbino Remains
			2.1.2.1 Key Features of the Seima-Turbino Remains
			2.1.2.2 The Dating of the Seima-Turbino Remains
			2.1.2.3 Ethnic Groups of the Seima-Turbino Remains
			2.1.2.4 Hollow-Headed Axes in Seima-Turbino Remains
			2.1.2.5 Seima-Turbino Bronze Spears
			2.1.2.6 Bronze Knives of Seima-Turbino
		2.1.3 Relationship Between the Two Types of Remains
	2.2 Relevant Remains in China
		2.2.1 Relevant Remains of the Andronovo Culture Complex Found in Xinjiang
			2.2.1.1 Xiabandi Cemetery in Tashkurgan
			2.2.1.2 Tangbalisay Cemetery in Nilka County
			2.2.1.3 The West Koksu River No. 2 Cemetery in Tekes County
			2.2.1.4 Cemetery in Sazi Village of Toli County
			2.2.1.5 Daxigou Cemetery in Huocheng County
			2.2.1.6 Adunqiaolu Site in Wenquan County
			2.2.1.7 Karasu Sites
			2.2.1.8 The Ayousai Goukou Site
			2.2.1.9 Bronzes: Hoard and Stray Finds
			2.2.1.10 Other Remains of the Same Period in Xinjiang
		2.2.2 Socketed Battle-Axes in Xinjiang and the Northern Zone
		2.2.3 Hollow-Head Axes in Xinjiang and the Northern Zone of China
		2.2.4 Bronze Spears with Seima-Turbino Characteristics Found in China
	2.3 The Cultural Relations Between China and the Steppe Zone During the 2nd Millennium B.C.
		2.3.1 Expansion of the Andronovo Culture Complex in Xinjiang
		2.3.2 The Spread of Socketed Battle-Axes
			2.3.2.1 Three Types of Battle-Axes: Origination and Evolvement
			2.3.2.2 Exploring the Relationship Among the Steppe Area, the Northern Zone of China and Xinjiang Through Studies of Socketed Battle-Axes
		2.3.3 Spread of Axes
		2.3.4 Seima-Turbino-Type Bronze Spears
		2.3.5 Summary
	References
3 The Emergence and Expansion of Bronzes in the Northern Zone of China
	3.1 Emergence of the Northern Bronzes
		3.1.1 Northern Bronzes During the Early Shang Period
			3.1.1.1 Bronzes of the Northern Zone Culture- Zhukaigou Culture
			3.1.1.2 Taixi Type—The Northern Variant of Early Shang Culture
		3.1.2 Northern Bronzes from the Late Shang to West Zhou
		3.1.3 Evolution of the Major Bronzes
			3.1.3.1 Swords
			3.1.3.2 Knives
			3.1.3.3 Socketed Axes
			3.1.3.4 Zhuoge
			3.1.3.5 Cheekpiece with an Animal Head
			3.1.3.6 Casting Mold
	3.2 Eurasian Steppe at the End of the 2nd Millennium B.C.
		3.2.1 The Kazakh Steppes, Eastern European Steppe, and Forest Steppes in the Post-Seima Period
		3.2.2 Early Bronzes from the Mongolian Region
		3.2.3 The Karasuk Culture in the Minusinsk Basin
	3.3 The Spread of Chinese Northern Bronzes
		3.3.1 The Influence of Northern Bronzes on Central Plain Culture
			3.3.1.1 Authentic Northern Artifacts
			3.3.1.2 The Imitation of Northern Bronzes
			3.3.1.3 The Blended Bronzes
		3.3.2 The Influence of Northern Bronzes on the North of the Yanshan Mountains
			3.3.2.1 The Bronzes from Both Sides of the the Yellow between Shanxi and Shaanxi River in the Late Shang and Early Zhou Dynasties
			3.3.2.2 Northern Bronzes from the Southern Flank of the Yanshan Mountains in the Late Shang Period
			3.3.2.3 Northern Bronzes from the Southern Flank of the Yanshan Mountains in the Zhou Period
		3.3.3 The Relationship Between Northern Bronzes and the Mongolian Plateau
		3.3.4 The Relationship Between Northern Bronzes and the Minusinsk Basin
		3.3.5 The Influence of the Northern Bronzes on the Steppes Beyond the Border, Taking the Bronze Short Sword as an Example
	References
4 The Beginning of the Early Nomadic Age
	4.1 The Beginning of the Nomadic Culture of the Eurasian Steppe
		4.1.1 The Pontic Area and the Kuban River Basin: The Pre- and Early Scythian Cultures
		4.1.2 Southern Siberia in Russia: The Arzhan Kurgan
			4.1.2.1 Weapons
			4.1.2.2 Horse Harnesses
			4.1.2.3 Art of Zoomorphic Ornaments
		4.1.3 Slab Grave Culture on the Mongolian Plateau and in Transbaikal
	4.2 The Predecessor of Nomadic Civilization in the Northern Zone of China
		4.2.1 Upper Xiajiadian Culture
			4.2.1.1 Remains in the Formation Period
			4.2.1.2 Remains in the Expansion Period
		4.2.2 Kayue Culture
	4.3 Contact Between the Northern Zone of China and the Eurasian Steppe
		4.3.1 The Relationship Between the Upper Xiajiadian Culture and the Slab Grave Culture
		4.3.2 Cultural Interaction Between the Upper Xiajiadian Culture and Southern Siberia and the Black Sea
		4.3.3 Division of the Middle and Eastern Eurasian Steppe and Their Characteristics
	4.4 Hypothesis on Reasons to Transition from Animal Husbandry to Nomadic Pastoralism
	References
5 The Northern Zone of China and the Eurasian Steppe in the Early Iron Age
	5.1 The Prosperous Nomadic Culture in the Eurasian Steppe
		5.1.1 The Scythian Culture
		5.1.2 The Sauro-Sarmatian Culture
		5.1.3 The Saka Culture
			5.1.3.1 Central Kazakhstan
			5.1.3.2 Eastern Kazakhstan
			5.1.3.3 The Semirechye, Fergana and Pamir Regions
				The Semirechye Region
				The Fergana Area
			5.1.3.4 The Pamir Area
		5.1.4 The Tagar Culture
		5.1.5 The Early Nomadic Culture in the Tuva Area
		5.1.6 The Early Nomadic Culture in the Altai Region
			5.1.6.1 The Maiemir Phase (8th Century B.C.–6th Century B.C.)
			5.1.6.2 The Pazyryk Phase (5th Century B.C.–3rd Century B.C.)
		5.1.7 The Slab Grave Culture
	5.2 Formation of the Northern Cultural Belt of China
		5.2.1 The Sites of the Di in Northern China
			5.2.1.1 The Sites of the Di People in Zhongshan State
			5.2.1.2 The Exploration of the Rong and Di Culture
				Yuanping and Other Sites
				Hunyuan Bronzes
				Sites of the Eastern Zhou Period in the Northern Hebei Areas
				Sites in northern Shaanxi of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty
				Sites of Bronze Guan Jars, Bronze Swords with Animal Mask-Shaped Guards, Tiger Plaques and Bronze Fu Cauldrons in Guanzhong
				Atypical Remains
			5.2.1.3 The Dating, Distribution and Main Features of the Rong and Di Cultures
			5.2.1.4 Relevant Literature
			5.2.1.5 Reconstruction of the White Di’s Eastward Migration Process
			5.2.1.6 An preliminary investigation of the Relationship Between the Rong and Di
		5.2.2 Remains Related to the Hu in the Northern Zone
			5.2.2.1 The Hu in Historical Records
			5.2.2.2 The Archaeological Sites Related to the Hu
				The Hu Sites Distributed in the Guyuan Area of Ningxia
				The Hu Sites Distributed in the Yinnan Area of Ningxia
				The Hu Sites Distributed in the Western Part of Inner Mongolia
				The Hu Sites Distributed in the Eastern Part of Inner Mongolia
				The Hu Sites Distributed in Northeast China
				Non-typical Hu-Related Sites
			5.2.2.3 The Hu-Related Sites: Time, Location and Cultural Expansion
		5.2.3 Differences Between Two Types of Sites in the Northern Zone of China During the Eastern Zhou Period
	5.3 Interactions Between the Northern Zone of China and the Eurasian Steppe
		5.3.1 Interactions with the Mongolian Plateau and Transbaikal
			5.3.1.1 Plaques with Tiger-Shaped Decorations
			5.3.1.2 Bronze Short Swords
			5.3.1.3 Leaf-Shaped Arrowheads with Split Tails
			5.3.1.4 Stick-Shaped Ornaments in Shape of the Linked Bead
		5.3.2 Interactions with Minusinsk and Tuva
			5.3.2.1 Short Swords with Double Bird Pommel
				Distribution of Short Swords with Double Bird Pommel
				Distribution of Short Swords with Double Bird Pommel
			5.3.2.2 Pickaxes
			5.3.2.3 Bronze Mirrors
			5.3.2.4 Standing Animal Decorations
		5.3.3 Connections with the Altai Region
			5.3.3.1 Patterns of Animals in a Twisted Posture
			5.3.3.2 Ornaments of Mythical Creatures with Horns
			5.3.3.3 Bird-Shaped Ornaments
			5.3.3.4 Tiger-Shaped Ornaments
		5.3.4 Connections with the Semirechye Region in the Tianshan Mountains
	5.4 Further Exploration of the Origin of the Xiongnu
		5.4.1 Comparison of Earliest Xiongnu Remains and the Related Remains of Northern Zone of China and the Mongolian Plateau
			5.4.1.1 Weapons
			5.4.1.2 Tiger-Shaped Plaques
			5.4.1.3 Horse-Shaped Plaques
			5.4.1.4 Animal-Head Ornaments
			5.4.1.5 Belt Ornaments
			5.4.1.6 Waist Decoration and Other Burial Customs
		5.4.2 Discussion
	References
6 Cultural Connections Between the Northern Zone of China and the Eurasian Steppe in Xiongnu Times
	6.1 Periodization of Xiongnu Remains
		6.1.1 Description of Related Concepts
			6.1.1.1 Cultural Differentiation in the Great Wall Zone in the Northern Zone of China
			6.1.1.2 The Xiongnu Era and the Xiongnu Culture
		6.1.2 Periodization of Xiongnu Remains in Mongolia and the Transbaikal Region
			6.1.2.1 The Dating of the Ivolga Fortress and Cemetery
				The Dating of the Bronze Mirrors and Wuzhu Coins
				Other Artifacts Found in the Burials of the Qin and Han Periods and the Northern Steppe Area
			6.1.2.2 The Dating of the Xiongnu Archaeological Sites of the “Derestuy Type (or Stage)” in Transbaikal
			6.1.2.3 The Dating of the “Sudzha Type”
			6.1.2.4 Characteristics of the Xiongnu Cultural Remains in Transbaikal and Mongolia During the Middle and Late Western Han Period
		6.1.3 The Large Tombs of the Xiongnu (Pan 2015b)
			6.1.3.1 Overview
			6.1.3.2 The Surface Shape and Structure
			6.1.3.3 Tombs and Dromoi
			6.1.3.4 Deposition in the Tombs
			6.1.3.5 Structure of the Chamber and Coffin
			6.1.3.6 Categorization of Tombs and Types and Placement of the Inventory
			6.1.3.7 Dates
			6.1.3.8 The Origin of the Tomb Shapes and Structures
			6.1.3.9 Existing Problems
	6.2 Origin and Development of the Cultural Elements of the Xiongnu and Their Communication with Surrounding Areas
		6.2.1 Analysis of the Cultural Factors of the Xiongnu Remains in the Middle and Late Western Han Period (Pan 2007b)
			6.2.1.1 Cultural Elements from the Yellow River Basin in Northern China
				Tomb Structures and Burial Containers
				Pottery
				Other Artifacts
				Summary
			6.2.1.2 Cultural Factors from the Great Wall Area of the Northern Zone of China
			6.2.1.3 The Local Culture of the Transbaikal Region
				Burial Shapes and Structures
				Pottery
				Bone Arrowheads and Bone Bowheads
			6.2.1.4 Cultural Factors from the Middle Reaches of the Yenisei River in Southern Siberia
			6.2.1.5 Cultural Factors from the Scythian Period in the Altai Region of Southern Siberia
			6.2.1.6 Analysis of the Source of the Xiongnu Culture
		6.2.2 The Spread of the Xiongnu Culture
			6.2.2.1 The Spread of the Xiongnu Culture During the Middle and Late Western Han Period
				Northeast China
				The West Bank of Lake Baikal
				The Tuva Region in Southern Siberia
				The Minusinsk Basin in the Middle Reaches of the Yenisei River, Southern Siberia
				The Altai Region of Russia and Mongolia
				Southern Ningxia and Xi’an, China
			6.2.2.2 The Early Eastern Han Period
				The Minusinsk Basin in Russia
				The Tuva Area in Russia
				Northeast China
				China’s Ordos Region
		6.2.3 Summary of the Spread of Xiongnu’s Cultural Factors and Their Relationship with the Surrounding Ethnic Groups and the Subordinate Countries of Xiongnu
	6.3 The Transformation of Cultural Interactions Between the Northern Zone of China and the Eurasian Steppe from the Late Warring States Period to the Middle Western Han Period (Pan 2015a)
		6.3.1 Eurasian Steppe Cultural Features in the Northern Zone of China During the Late Warring States Period
		6.3.2 The Eurasian Steppe Cultural Factors in the Northern Zone of China During the Western Han Dynasty
		6.3.3 The Cultural Factors of the Central Plain in the Xiongnu Culture
		6.3.4 The Opening of the Silk Road and Its Southward Movement
	References
Conclusion
The Development of the Northern Zone of China-Mongolian Plateau Metallurgical Province and the Rise of the Xiongnu
The Contact of the Northern Zone of China with the Inner Asia Piedmont and the Formation of the Silk Road
The Eastward and Westward Cultural Advances Influenced by Cultures of the Eastern Region and the Western Region
Postscript