The Maritime Economy of Ancient Cyprus in Terms of the New Institutional Economics

Cover
Title Page
Copyright page
Dedication
Contents Page
Chapter 1
The New Institutional Economics (NIE)
	Introduction
		Economic History
		The New Institutional Economics (NIE)
Chapter 2
Part I: The First Economic Cycle:
The Maritime Economy of Ancient Cyprus During the Age of Internationalism (1450–1200 BC)
	Introduction
	The international historical background
		Cyprus’ relations with the Great Powers of Egypt and Hatti
	The economic and socio-political landscape of LBA Cyprus and its institutions
	The urban administrative centres and settlements during the first economic cycle
		Enkomi
		Hala Sultan Tekke
		Kition
		Maroni
		Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios (KAD)
		Alassa
		Palaepaphos
		Maa Palaeokastro
		Morphou Toumba tou Skourou and Myrtou Pighades
		Pyla Kokkinokremos
		Peripheral settlements in north Cyprus
	The maritime economy, its infrastructure, organisation, and developments
		The maritime economy
		Evidence from maritime archaeology
		A typical trading port in the LBA Eastern Mediterranean
		Harbour operation and administration
		Tax and import duties, transit taxes and right to grant tax exemption
		Cost, size, and ownership of ships
		Did Alashiya possess a military fleet?
		Pirates, coastal mariners, and economic mercenaries
	International developments, relations, and trade
		The Amarna letters and diplomacy
		Archives from Ugarit
		Common maritime and mercantile zones and long-distance trade
		International customary law and norms of the sea
	INSTITUTIONS, INTERRELATIONS, AND INTENSIFICATION OF THE ECONOMY
		State and private enterprise; nature of relations
	COPPER PRODUCTION, EXPORT PROCESS, AND TRADE – AN INSTITUTIONAL ACTIVITY
	WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, THE CONCEPT OF MONEY AND CREDIT
		The concept of credit
	DOCUMENTATION AND WRITING
	THE ROLE OF TEMPLES AND SANCTUARIES IN THE MARITIME ECONOMY
	CASE STUDY: THE ECONOMIC MODEL OF KALAVASOS AYIOS DHIMITRIOS (KAD)
		KAD economic model
		Olive Oil
		Other products
		Wheat
		Wine
		Conclusion
	MARKETING SURVEY – INTERNATIONAL PRICES – COMPARISON TABLES AND CHARTS
		Branding
		Trade and prices of copper
		Trade and prices of wheat, barley, and emmer
		Trade of tin
		The trade and prices of olive oil and aromatics
		The trade and prices of textiles
		The trade and prices of wine
		Bronze products and the weapon industry, Cypriot cross-selling exports
		Pottery, an added-value commodity
		The aggressively open economy and human capital, Cypriots travelling and living overseas
		Marketing survey summary
	CONCLUSION
Figure 1: Map of the international system and territorial states c. 1400 BC (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 2: Cyprus and its major urban administrative centres, ports and settlements during the First Economic Cycle (drawing: Katerina Parpas).
Figure 3: The Ashlar Building at Enkomi of administrative and religious character. Its monumentality is comparable to similar buildings in Ugarit (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 4: Enkomi ground plan (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades, after Webb 1999 and Buchholz 1988).
Figure 5: Maroni and Kalavasos valleys (map: Kalavasos Maroni Built Environment Project, courtesy KAMBE).
Figure 6: Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios Building X, with an estimated total olive oil storage capacity of 50,000 l. (after South 2015: 221; courtesy Alison South).
Figure 7: Silver figurine (6.2 cm) depicting a Hittite god, excavated at Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 8: Ayios Dhimitrios settlement (map: Kalavasos Maroni Built Environments project, courtesy KAMBE).
Figure 9: Map of the Paphos area, showing the major copper-producing areas on the southern slopes of Mt Troodos in relation to the Palaepaphos urban centre (map after Georgiou 2017: 211, courtesy Artemis Georgiou; digital data by the Cyprus Department of
Figure 10: Top: Aerial photo of the Maa Palaeokastro settlement site (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus). Bottom: The north fortification walls at Maa Palaeokastro (photo: the author, courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 11: Ground plan of the 1981–1982 excavations at Pyla Kokkinokremos (drawing: Katerina Parpas, after Karageorghis and Demas 1984: fig. 4).
Figure 12: Reconstructed altar with horns of consecration made from ashlar masonry blocks at Myrtou Pighades (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 13: The maritime economy of Cyprus during the LBA. The graph is pictorial and not intended to suggest comparative trading volumes (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 15: (Left) The kingdom of Ugarit during the 13th century BC, with its capital at Ras Shamra and the two main ports at Minet el Baidha and Ras ibn Hani close by.  (Right) The palace and residences of elite officials and traders in the kingdom’s capi
Figure 16: Schematic map of shipping routes in the Eastern Mediterranean originating from Cyprus (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Table: 1 Major buildings in urban administrative centres.
Figure 17: Map of Cyprus, indicating the Upper and Lower Pillow Lavas and the distribution of ancient slag heaps (after Georgiou 2017: 208, fig. 1; digital data from the Cyprus Department of Geological Survey; courtesy Artemis Georgiou).
Figure 18: Proposed bulk copper production and export process (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 19: The sacred precinct in Area II at Kition, which was reorganised extensively at the beginning of the 12th century BC, indicating metallurgy workshops in the northern area and textile manufacture in its western part, clearly associated with relig
Figure 20: International and local exchange mobilisation (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 21: Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios (KAD) olive oil production and long-distance trade. 5000 l per annum held in reserve (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 22: Overland transport for 30,000 l of olive oil with a caravan of twenty donkeys (drawing: Philipos Vasilades).
Figure 23: Combination of land and sea transport (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 24: KAD potential net annual gross income, over a good harvest year, from the long-distance trade of olive oil and exchange of wine (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 25: Four-sided ceremonial bronze stand. The figure carrying the copper ingot towards a tree indicates the role between production and the trade of copper and elite ritual (courtesy Department of Antiquities. Cyprus).
Figure 26: Prices of copper and tin in Egypt and Ugarit (drawing: Philipos Vasilades).
Figure 27: Prices per 100 litres of barley and wheat in Egypt, Hatti, and Ugarit at the end of the First Economic Cycle and the 19th Dynasty (1295–1186 BC) (drawing: Philipos Vasilades).
Figure 28: Proposed purple-dyed textile household/workshop installation at Hala Sultan Tekke settlement (after Fisher and Burge 2018: 618, Fig. 10.9; courtesy the authors).
Table 2: Comparison table of the prevailing international prices in the Near East market during the First Economic Cycle.
Figure 29: International commodity prices in the First Economic Cycle (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Chapter 3
Part II: The Second Economic Cycle:
The Maritime Economy of Ancient Cyprus During Political Volatility, Economic Growth and Transformation (1200–525 Bc)
	Introduction
	THE INTERNATIONAL HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
		The collapse of the LBA international system
Figure 30: The Neo-Assyrian Empire in 700 BC (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
The Assyrian Empire
	The Neo-Assyrian Empire and Cyprus
	The  disintegration of the Assyrian Empire, the rise of the Achaemenids, and the surrender of Cyprus to the Persian Empire c. 525 BC
Figure 31: Map of the sites where monuments and steles of Sargon II have been found outside the Assyrian heartland. The western arc, which includes the Cyprus stele, demarcates Assyria’s western boundaries; the eastern one, including the Najafehabad stele
Figure 32: Left: The stele of Sargon II from Kition (707 BC). The large stele (height 2.09 m) was discovered on the Bamboula Hill in Larnaca in 1844. It was purchased by the Berlin Museum in 1846 and has been part of its permanent exhibition ever since. A
THE NEW ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT
Figure 33: Map of Cyprus showing the sites mentioned in the text (drawing: Katerina Parpas).
THE SECOND ECONOMIC CYCLE, URBAN ADMINISTRATIVE CENTRES AND CITY-STATES
	Hala Sultan Tekke
	The Kalavasos and Maroni Valleys
	Alassa
	Maa Palaeokastro and Pyla Kokkinokremos
	Salamis-Enkomi
	Kition
	Palaepaphos
	Amathus
	Idalion
	Kourion-Episkopi Bamboula
	Lapethos
	Marion
	Soloi
	Tamassos, Chytroi and Ledra
Figure 34: Tomb 79 from the Salamis necropolis (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 35: Plan of the area between Salamis and Enkomi, showing the location of the Salamis necropolis (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 36: Aerial view of the excavated remains at Kition (Area II), showing the fortification walls, the workshops, and the ‘sacred area’, 13th – 12th century BC (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 37: The remains of Sanctuary I at Palaepaphos, showing the massive monolithic blocks (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 38: Aerial view of the fortified palatial complex at Idalion (courtesy Maria Hadjicosti (2013: 66–67); photo: T.S. Sagory).
MARITIME ECONOMY AND INFRASTRUCTURE, SHIP CONSTRUCTION, LONG-DISTANCE TRADE, PORTS AND HARBOURS
	The maritime economy, long-distance trade, and its new forms of organisation
	Ports, harbours and anchorages
	Merchantmen
	Hull construction
	Rigging
	Tanit and Elissa shipwrecks, a typical Near Eastern maritime venture
	Warships and sea warfare
	Cost of ships
Figure 39: Reconstruction of Kition’s ancient harbour during the 4th century BC, based on recent geophysical results, showing the ship sheds in Bamboula harbour. Comparable maritime landscape/facilities probably existed during the Second Economic Cycle (d
Figure 40: Typical LBA/IA hulls with keel and pegged mortise and tenon joints (after Polzer 2011: 361, 366).
Figure 41: The original wreck at Kyrenia castle. It was built in the shell-first method and for its construction some 8,000 mortises have been cut to receive 4,000 tenons, providing a very rigid construction before any internal framing (courtesy Departmen
Figure 42: (a) Ship graffito on a stele at Enkomi; (b) ship graffito from Nahal Me’arot in Israel, dated 13th – 11th century BC; (c) engraving of Ship 1 on the Akko altar; (d) boat engraving from Temple 1 at Kition Kathari (Akko altar (c) after R. Pollack
Figure 43: Terracotta model of cargo ship from Kalo Khorio-Zithkionas, evidencing substantially similar features to the Akko altar ship engravings and the engraving from Temple 1 at Kition. On display in the Cyprus Museum (courtesy Department of Antiquity
Figure 44: Drawing of a typical oared gulley from the relief in the palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh, showing a double-decked ship carrying members of King Luli’s family, in flight from Tyros to Kition in Cyprus (drawing: Katerina Parpas, after Basch 1987
Figure 45: Top: Olympias, the Hellenic Navy’s reconstructed ancient Athenian trieres in 1987, at Flisvos at Paleon Phaleron. During trial runs she reached a maximum speed of 9 knots or 17 kmph and could do 180o turns within a minute, in an arc not more th
Figure 46: Top: Monthly LBA/EIA salaries in the Eastern Mediterranean.  Bottom: Estimated construction costs of ships during LBA/EIA, and between the 5th – 6th centuries BC (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS AND RELATIONS DURING THE NEO-ASSYRIAN PERIOD
	Cyprus in the shadow of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
	The first state-controlled economy in history
	The Assyrian naval presence in the Eastern Mediterranean
	Customs, practices, and regulations governing international trade
	A maritime transaction with an Assyrian royal merchant, tamkārū or ambassador, qēpu
Figure 47: Trading routes during the Neo-Assyrian period (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 48: The Neo-Assyrian world trade network, karu (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades, after Parpas 2018: 72–73, Fig. 8).
Figure 49: The Yamanean and Assyrian conflict zone, showing piratic activities and raids in the triangle between the Levantine coast, Cyprus, and Kilikia (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades, after Parpas 2018: 103, Fig. 9).
Figure 50: Assyrian naval domination along the Levantine coast (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades, after Parpas: 2018: 56, Fig. 5).
THE PRODUCTION AND TRADE OF COPPER, IRON, AND SILVER. NEW FEATURES TO AN OLD INSTITUTION
DEMAND OF HIGH ADDED-VALUE MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS ALONG WITH PROCESSED AGRICULTURAL GOODS AND TEXTILES AND ITS EFFECT ON CYPRUS MARITIME ECONOMY
	Metalwork and orientalising luxury products
	Processed agricultural products. The Kekova Adasi, Kepce Burnu, and Cayagic Koyu shipwrecks
	Textiles
Figure 51a, b: Luxury furniture with ivory decorations found in Tomb 79 at the Salamis Necropolis. On display in the Cyprus Museum (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 52: The cauldron found within the Salamis ‘Royal Tombs’. It is thought to have been manufactured in Cyprus under strong Near Eastern influence. On display in the Cyprus Museum (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
NETWORKS OF INTERACTION AND THE CYPRIOT MARITIME COMMERCIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN
	Who were the Phoenicians?
	The Phoenician expansion and the Cypriot connection
	Cyprus and the Aegean
	Cypriot ceramic trade networks in the southern Levant during the 8th and 7th centuries BC
	Cypriot presence at Al-Mina
	Cyprus and Naukratis
Figure 53: Map of trading routes in the Mediterranean during the Second Economic Cycle (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 54: Cypriot White-Painted and Bichrome ceramics as shown in the fragments exported to Dor at around the end of the millennium BC constitute evidence of thriving trade of ceramics between Cyprus and the Levant (after Gilboa et al. 2015: 94, courtesy
SHIPS OF WAR AND NAVAL SERVICES. NEW AND DIVERSIFIED ACTIVITIES OF THE CYPRIOT ECONOMY
	Ships-of-war and the probable cost and funding of naval expeditions
	Weapon manufacture
Table: 3 Cypriot participation in the navies and armies of foreign powers (9th/8th centuries BC to 525 BC).
Figure 55: Typical iron and bronze weapons, as well as arrow heads of Cypriot manufacture, on display in the Cyprus Museum (photo: author; courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
Figure 56: Distribution of Cypriot EIA weapons (after Vonhoff 2013: 199, Fig 5).
Figure 57: The silver-studded iron sword from the dromos of Salamis Tomb 3, dated c. 600 BC. A quiver with arrows, a bronze spear and shield were found next to the sword (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
MONEY, CREDIT, FINANCE, AND THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES SYSTEM
DOCUMENTATION, WRITING, AND LANGUAGE
Figure 58: Greek Cypro-Syllabic inscription of King Onasicharis of Paphos on display at the Kouklia Museum (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus).
TEMPLES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS
	Case study – A plausible economic model of the involvement of the temple in the production and distribution of textiles, dyed wool, and garments
CASE STUDY – COPPER EXPORTS FROM SALAMIS –THE CONTINUITY OF AN INSTITUTON
Figure 59: Proposed wool and purple-dyed textile and garment production for local distribution and long-distance trade (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 60: Eastern Cyprus, showing riverine routes from Tamassos via the Pedieos River, and Idalion via the Yialias River to Salamis (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 61: Copper trade routes from Cyprus to Mesopotamia during the First and Second Economic cycles, using sea, land, and river routes (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
MARKETING SURVEY– INTERNATIONAL PRICES – COMPARISON TABLES AND CHARTS
	Branding
	Trade and prices of metallurgy products, copper, iron and tin
	Trade and prices of wheat, barley, and emmer
	Trade and prices of textiles
	Marketing survey summary
Table 4: Ratios of silver to metals.
Figure 62: Prices of copper, tin, and iron in Egypt, Babylonia, and Athens during the Second Economic Cycle (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 63: Prices of tin in Ugarit, Babylon, and Athens (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 64: Prices of barley and emmer in Egypt at the beginning of the Second Economic Cycle (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 65: Price variation of barley per 15,000 l barley in Egypt at the beginning of the Second Economic Cycle (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
CONCLUSION
Chapter 4
Part III: The Third Economic Cycle
The Maritime Economy of Ancient Cyprus in the Persian Empire
Until its Annexation in the Ptolemaic Kingdom (525–295 BC)
	Introduction
	THE INTERNATIONAL HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
		A period of volatility and military conflict (525–449/48 BC)
		A period of economic development, the Peace of Kallias (449/448–411 BC)
		Evagoras’ drive to become hegemon of Cyprus, the King’s Peace (411–387/386 BC)
		From the King’s Peace to Alexander the Great and the annexation of Cyprus in the Ptolemaic Kingdom (387/386–295 BC)
	THE IONIAN REVOLT (499–494 BC) AND THE CYPRIOT UPRISING IN 498 BC
	Population
	Salamis
	Kition
	Amathus
	Idalion
	Kourion
	Marion
	Palaepaphos-New Paphos
	Lapethos
	Soloi
	THE MARITIME ECONOMY AND NAVAL INFRASTRUCTURE
		Harbours, ports, and anchorages
		The maritime and naval economies
		Shipsheds – Kition
		New advances in warships
		Evidence from maritime archaeology
		The sail-making industry
		The Alonessos shipwreck
		The Mazotos shipwreck
		The Mazotos, Ma’agan Mikhael, and Kyrenia shipwrecks
		The Kyrenia shipwreck
		The Ma’agan Mikhael shipwreck
		Size of ships and nature of cargo
	Tamassos
	THE PERSIAN FISCAL ADMINISTRATION AND TRIBUTE SYSTEM
	THE PERSIAN ROYAL NAVY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE TRIBUTE SYSTEM
	THE CYPRIOT FISCAL ADMINISTRATION, AND PSEUDO-ARISTOTLE’S OIKONOMIKA, BOOK 2
		Oikonomika Book 2, Section 1
		The handling of surpluses, the ‘Persepolis Fortification Texts’; and the ‘Idalion Archive’
		The ‘Idalion Archive’
		The ‘Persepolis Fortification Texts’
		The Idalion Tablet. Revenues from land production and harvest, land ownership, hereditary transfer and sale of land
		The administrative ostracon from the West Complex at Palaepaphos, Hadjiabdullah plateau
		The Kourion Inscription. Land registry as proof of ownership and allocation of taxes
		Revenues from the operation of ports and trade in market places
		Revenues from copper mines and shipbuilding timber
	THE INTERNATIONAL GRAIN TRADE
		Athens’ grain shortage
		Production of grain in Cyprus
		Royal grain surplus
		Cypriot grain trade
	COINAGE, CREDIT, AND FINANCE
		Coinage weights and standards
		Linguistic variations and use of symbols and iconography
		Political economy
		Credit and finance
		Finance for international trade – Demosthenes’ speech Against Lakritos
	RELIGION, THE TEMPLES, AND SANCTUARIES
	DOCUMENTATION – LANGUAGE
	THE NAVAL WAR OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN (334–331 BC). CYPRIOT PARTICIPATION: A CASE-STUDY OF COSTS AND FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS
		Infrastructure
		Ships
		Crews
		Provisioning
		Pay
		Summary and conclusions
	MARKETING SURVEY – INTERNATIONAL PRICES – COMPARISON TABLES AND CHARTS
		Trade and prices of metals
		Trade and prices of grain
		Trade and prices of wine
		Trade and prices of olive oil
		Trade and prices of salt
		Cost of shipping
		Marketing survey summary
		The movement and mobility of people, the human capital
	CONCLUSIONS
Figure 66: The Persian Empire (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Table 5: 525–449/48 BC.
Table 6:  411–387/386 BC.
Table 7:  387/386–295 BC.
Figure 67: The Northern Gate at Palaepaphos, seen from inside the city, from where the Paphians dug their underground tunnels to mine the Persians’ siege ramp made of earth, tree trunks and building debris. The Northern Gate occupied a commanding position
Figure 68: (Top) The Vouni Palace (courtesy Department of Antiquity, Cyprus).   (Bottom) The East (Palace) and West (Workshop) Complex at Palaepaphos Hadjiabdoullah (UAV orthophoto: K. Themistocleous and A. Agapiou; courtesy PULP Director © PULP).
Figure 69: Salamis’ harbours and probable location of shipsheds (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades, after Davies 2012: 236, fig. 1).
Figure 70: The ‘closed port’ at New Paphos (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades, after Leonard 1998: 151, fig. 4).
Figure 71: Reconstructed section of the Kition shipshed, phase 1 (drawing: Katerina Parpas, after Blackman 2013: 127, fig. A8.3; Callot in Yon 2000: 110, fig. 11b).
Figure 72: Bottom : Ramps and slipway structures of Kition’s shipsheds.
Figure 73: Top : Inscription on the base of a statue at the temple of Palaepaphos dated c. 282–246 BC, reading: ΠΤΟΛΕΜΑΙΟΣ ΠΥΡΓΟΤΕΛΗΝ ΖΩΗΤΟΣ ΑΡΧΙΤΕΚΤΟΝΗΣΑΝΤΑ ΤΗΝ ΤΡΙΑΚΟΝΤΗΡΗ ΚΑΙ ΕΙΚΟΣΗΡΗ (after Nikolaou 1971: 20, plate XX; courtesy Department of Antiquity
Figure 74: Replica of the Kyrenia shipwreck, Kyrenia II, on display at the THALASSA Agia Napa Municipal Museum (courtesy THALASSA, Agia Napa Municipal Museum, Cyprus).
Figure 75: Reconstruction of the amphorae found at the site of the Kyrenia shipwreck on display at the THALASSA Agia Napa Municipal Museum (photos: the author; courtesy THALASSA, Agia Napa Municipal Museum, Cyprus).
Figure 76:  Darius’ (Darayavaush) tomb at Persepolis (photo: the author).
Table 8:  Tonnage of mixed cargo from Sidonian ships to Egypt in 475 BC (After Stager 2003: 242, Table 3.)
Figure 77: Cyrus’ (Kurush) tomb at Pasargadae (photo: the author).
Figure 78: Top: Ostracon ID A 446 (1993) from Idalion, referring to ‘x KWT of oil’ and ‘quarters’ (courtesy Department of Antiquities, Cyprus). Bottom: Ostracon ID A 443 (1996) from Idalion, referring to ‘20 KW’ and ten ‘quarters’ (courtesy Department of
Figure 79:  Administrative ostracon with Cypro-Syllabic inscription from the West Complex (workshop) at Palaepaphos Hadjiabdullah (photo and drawing: Artemis Karnava, in Iacovou and Karnava 2019: 43; © PULP).
Figure 80:  Grain cultivation dominated Cyprus’ agriculture in 1844. Of the 61,300 ha (Table 9) under crops, about 61.2% was planted for barley and wheat, i.e. 37,500 ha of the arable land was planted for cereal (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades, after Jennes
Table 9: Total farmland and areas under crops in the 19th and 20th centuries (Jenness 1962: 66–71).
Figure 81: Top: During the Lusignan period there was a steady decline in population. This was reversed during Venetian times when the population numbers recovered to c. 200,000 inhabitants. During the Ottoman period the population declined again, until it
Table 10: Estimated sources of grain in Athens in the mid 4th century BC.
Figure 82:  The Cypriot navy during the siege of Tyros, attacked from the Sidonian port (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades, after Parpas 2013: 160).
Table 11: Approximate absolute values and approximate average ratios of values of metals during the Third Economic Cycle in Greece.
Figure 83: Ratios of silver to copper from First, Second and Third Economic Cycles (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 84: Ratios of silver to iron, and copper to iron from Yamana in Babylon 550 BC. Ratios of silver to iron, and copper to iron from Yamana in Athens 500 BC–350 BC (drawings: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 85:  Prices of copper and iron in Babylon 550 BC, and Greece 500–300 BC (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Table 12:  Prices and values of grain from the First to the end of the Third Economic Cycle.
Figure 86: Prices of grain in the Near East and Athens from the First, Second, and Third Economic Cycle (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 87: Prices of wine in the Near East and the Aegean from the First, Second and Third Economic Cycles (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Table 13:  Prices and values of wine from the First to the Third Economic Cycle.
Figure 88:   Prices of olive oil, First to Third Economic Cycles (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Figure 89:  Comparison of prices in Athens of salt during the siege of Athens with top-quality wine and copper during the last part of the Third Economic Cycle (drawing: Philipos Vasiliades).
Table 14: Comparison of prevailing international commodity prices in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Third Economic Cycle.
Appendix
Weights and measures, prices and means of exchange, consumption, conversions and production rates
Bibliography
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