The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road (100 BC - 1300 AD)

THE MALAY PENINSULA: CROSSROADS OF THE MARITIME SILK ROAD (100 BC - 1300 AD)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF DOCUMENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. THE IMPACT OF GEOLOGY, RELIEF AND CLIMATE ON THE HISTORIC DESTINY OF THE MALAY PENINSULA
	A. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
		I. The Position of the Malay Peninsula in Relation to the Continent of Asia
		II. The Sunda Platform: The Geological History of the Malay Peninsula
		III. The Rocks and Soils of the Malay Peninsula
	B. THE GREAT RELIEF ZONES
		I. The Mountain Ranges
			1. The Tenasserim Range
			2. The Nakhon Si Thammarat Range
			3. The Kedah-Singgora Range
			4. The Bintang Range
			5. The Kledang Range
			6. The Main Range
			7. The Mount Benom Range
			8. The Tahan Range
			9. The Eastern Range
		II. The Plains
		III. The Rivers
	C. THE CLIMATE
		I. The System of the Monsoons
		II. A Breakdown of the System of the Monsoon Winds and Ocean Currents
		III. Other Features of the Climate
CHAPTER II. THE MALAY PENINSULA: OBSTACLE OR SOURCE OF CONTACTS AND PROFIT AMONG THE ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS?
	A. THE PEOPLES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA
	B. THE MALAY PENINSULA AS OBSTACLE
		I. The Transpeninsular Routes
			1. Various accounts concerning the real possibility of the use of transpeninsular routes
			2. How were the transpeninsular routes used?
			3. What were these possible routes across the isthmus?
		II. Circumpeninsular Navigation
		III. The Merchant Ships of the Southern Seas
	C. THE PENINSULA AS SOURCE OF CONTACTS AND PROFITS
		I. Landing Places
		II. \"The Strange and the Precious\"
		III. Mineral Resources
			1. Gold
			2. Tin
CHAPTER III. CONTACTS BETWEEN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT AND THE MALAY PENINSULA BEFORE INDIANIZATION
	A. NEW DEFINITIONS OF INDIANIZATION
	B. INTER-REGIONAL CONTACTS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE EARLY PERIOD
	C. CONTACTS BETWEEN INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE EARLY PERIOD
		I. Ban Don Ta Phet
		II. Khao Sam Keo
		III. Khuan Luk Pat
		IV. Kuala Selinsing
CHAPTER IV. THE FIRST ACCOUNTS OF INDIANIZATIONIN THE MALAY PENINSULA: FROM THE FIRST CENTURIES OF THE ERA TO THE END OF THE 4TH CENTURY
CHAPTER V. PANPAN, FROM THE 5TH TO THE 8TH CENTURY: HISTORY AND BRAHMANICAL RELIGIOUS REMAINS
	A. HISTORIC REFERENCES TO PANPAN IN THE ASIAN CONTEXT
	B. BRAHMANICAL RELIGIOUS REMAINS
		I. Images of Viṣṇu
			1. The Chaiya Viṣṇu
			2. Viṣṇu images similar to the Chaiya Viṣṇu
			3. The Satingpra Viṣṇu
			4. Two Wiang Sa statues of Viṣṇu
			5. The Khao Si Vichai Viṣṇu
			6. Bases of statues of Viṣṇu
			7. Two Khao Si Vichai images of Viṣṇu from Group B
			8. The Wat Cham Thong (Sichon) Viṣṇu
			9. The Wat Phra Narai (Tha Sala) Viṣṇu
			10. Other vestiges from Group C
			11. The Takua Pa Viṣṇu
			12. The Wat Phra Phikanet head of Viṣṇu
		II. Liṅgas
		III. Ablution Basins and Pedestals
		IV. Gaṇeśa
		V. Brahmanical Architectural Remains
CHAPTER VI. PANPAN, FROM THE 5TH TO THE 8TH CENTURY: BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS REMAINS
	A. IMAGES OF TRADITIONAL BUDDHISM
		1. The Wiang Sa Buddha
		2. The Sichon head of Buddha
		3. Statue of Buddha
		4. Bronze head and torso of Buddha
		5. Bronze statuette of Buddha from Wat Cham Thong (Sichon)
		6. Statue of seated Buddha from Wat Phra Barommathat (Chaiya)
		7. Stone statuette of Buddha from Satingpra
		8. Statues of Buddha in the Dvāravatī style
		9. Wheels of the Law
	B. MAHĀYĀNA IMAGES
		1. Stone statue of Avalokiteśvara from Chaiya
		2. Bronze Avalokiteśvara from Khuan Saranrom
		3. Stone head from Khao Nam Ron (Chaiya)
		4. Stone statue of Avalokiteśvara
		5. Stone statue of Avalokiteśvara from Wat Phra Barommathat (Chaiya)
		6. Fragment of a statue from Khao Si Vichai (Phunphin)
	C. VOTIVE TABLETS
	D. VOTIVE STŪPAS
CHAPTER VII. LANGKASUKA: FROM THE 5TH TO THE END OF THE 8TH CENTURY
	A. LANGKASUKA IN THE ANCIENT TEXTS
	B. ON THE SITE OF LANGKASUKA: REMAINS LINKED TO RELIGIOUS RITES
		I. The Site of the Ancient City
		II. A Possible Geography of Langkasuka in the Early Period
		III. Archaeological Remains Linked to Religious Rites
			ARCHITECTURE
			OBJECTS OF BUDDHIST DEVOTION
				1. The votive stūpas
				2. The votive tablets
			SCULPTURE
				1. Buddhist works
				2. Brahmanical works
			ARTISTIC INFLUENCES ON LANGKASUKA
	C. ON THE SITE OF LANGKASUKA: REMAINS FROM COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY
CHAPTER VIII. JIECHA (SOUTH KEDAH): FROM THE 5TH TO THE END OF THE 8TH CENTURY. CHITU: AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 7TH CENTURY
	JIECHA (SOUTH KEDAH)
	A. SOUTH KEDAH IN THE EARLY TEXTS
	B. THE POSSIBLE GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY OF SOUTH KEDAH IN THE EARLY PERIOD
		I. The Coastal Landscape of South Kedah in the Early Period
		II. Agricultural Activity in South Kedah in the Early Period
		III. The Consequences of Agricultural Activity on the Morphology of the Landscape of South Kedah
		IV. An Estimate of the Population of South Kedah in the Early Period
	C. THE FIRST ARCHAEOLOGICAL VESTIGES OF SOUTH KEDAH
		I. Architectural Remains
		II. The Inscriptions
			1. Engraved stone from site NB2 (1w)
			2. Inscribed tablet from site SB2 (2w)
			3. Deposit Reliquary of site SB 14 (10w)
			4. The Cherok Tokun inscription
			5. The Mahānāvika Buddhagupta inscription
			6. The Kampong Sungai Mas inscription
			7. The Bukit Meriam inscription
		III. Other Archaeological Objects
			1. Statuette of Buddha from site SB 3 (16Aw)
			2. Head of Buddha
			3. The Kampong Sungai Mas pedestal
			4. Top of a bronze reliquary
			5. The Ipoh Buddha
			6. The Tanjung Ramboutan (Perak) statuette of Buddha
			7. Presentation bowl
	CHITU
CHAPTER IX. ŚRīVIJAYA AND THE MALAY PENINSULA: FROM THE END OF THE 7TH TO THE 8TH CENTURY
	A. ŚRīVIJAYA: MYTH OR REALITY?
	B. ŚRīVIJAYA\'S HOLD OVER THE PENINSULA: LITERARY AND EPIGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS (7TH TO 8TH CENTURIES)
		I. In South Kedah (Jiecha)
		II. In Panpan
		III. In Langkasuka
	C. TOWARDS A REAPPRAISAL OF ŚRīVIJAYA\' S HOLD OVER THE MALAY PENINSULA
CHAPTER X. THE TURN OF THE 9TH CENTURY IN THE MALAY PENINSULA: THE ASIAN POLITICAL CONTEXT AND THE ENTREPÔT PORTS
	A. THE POLITICAL CONTEXT OF ASIA IN THE 9TH CENTURY
		I. The Middle East
		II. Central Asia
		III. China
		IV. Campā
		V. Śrīvijaya
		VI. The Pālas
		VII. South India
		VIII. Śrī Laṅkā
	B. THE ENTREPÔT PORTS OF THE 9TH CENTURY
		I. Laem Pho
			1. Discovery, location, excavation
			2. Archaeological discoveries
		II. Yarang
		III. Ko Kho Khao
			1. Discovery and location
			2. Archaeological discoveries
		IV. Kampong Sungai Mas
			1. Discovery and location
			2. Excavation
			3. Archaeological discoveries
CHAPTER XI. THE TURN OF THE 9TH CENTURY IN THE MALAY PENINSULA: RELIGIOUS REMAINS
	A. ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS
		I. The East Coast of the Peninsula
			Panpan
				1. Wat Keo
				2. Wat Long
				3. Wat Phra Barommathat
				4. Other architectural vestiges
				5. Other hills
				6. Hills of Phunphin
				7. Monuments from the southern limits of Panpan
			Langkasuka
				II. The West Coast of the Peninsula
					1. Ko Kho Khao-Takua Pa
					2. South Kedah
	B. SCULPTURAL REMAINS
		I. Remains on the East Coast
			Panpan
				1. Avalokiteśvara from Wat Phra Barommathat
				2. Another Avalokiteśvara from Wat Phra Barommathat
				3. Small Mahāyāna Buddhist bronzes
				4. Avalokiteśvara from Phunphin
				5. Buddha from Tham Khuha Sawan
				6. Votive tablets
			The Southern part of Panpan
				1. Votive tablets
				2. Head of Buddha from Wat Khanaram (Na San)
				3. Avalokitesvara from Na San
				4. Avalokiteśvara from Nong Hoi
				5. Two other two-armed Avalokiteśvaras
				6. Bronze images from the vicinity of Satingpra
				7. Gilt bronze image of Buddha from Satingpra
				8. Gaṇeśa from Na San
				9. Agastya from Satingpra
				10. Śiva from Nong Hoi
			Langkasuka
				1. Buddha from Wat Khuhaphimuk (Yala)
				2. Bronze votive stūpa from Wat Khuhaphimuk
				3. Avalokitesvara from Betong
				4. Votive tablets
				5. Votive stūpas
		II. Remains on the West Coast
			The region of Takua Pa
				1. The Phra Narai group of statues
				2. Gaṇeśa from Ko Kho Khao
				3. Somāskanda from Ko Kho Khao
				4. Bronze statuette of Buddha from Ko Kho Khao
				5. Votive tablets
			The caves of the Trang Region
			Two caves in Perlis (Malaysia)
			The cave of Gua Berhala in Kelantan (Malaysia)
			South Kedah
			Perak
				1. Avalokiteśvara from Bidor
				2. Small bronze throne
				3. Two lost bronze images
				4. Stone votive stūpa
				5. Agastya from Jalong
			Vicinity of Pulau Ketam near Klang (Selangor, Malaysia)
				1. Bronze Avalokiteśvara
CHAPTER XII. THE SITUATION IN THE MALAY PENINSULA IN THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES: THE APPEARANCE OF TAMBRALINGA
	A. THE POLITICO-COMMERCIAL ASIAN CONTEXT IN THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES
		I. China
		II. The Middle East
		III. South India, Śrīvijaya and Java
		IV. Tambralinga Seen through the Texts
			1. Chronicles written in Pāli
			2. The Chinese texts
		V. The Colas in the Malay Peninsula
		VI. Burma in the Malay Peninsula
	B. ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS THAT BEAR WITNESS TO THE 10TH AND 11TH CENTURIES IN THE MALAY PENINSULA
		I. Theories Concerning Commercial Activities in this Period
			1. East coast
			2. West coast
			3. The Vicinity of Mergui-Tenassarim
		II. Architectural Remains
			1. In the Chaiya region
			2. In Langkasuka
			3. In South Kedah
		III. Sculptural Remains
			1. Buddha from Wat Keo
			2. Bronze statuettes of Buddha
			3. Works in the Dvāravatī style
			4. Viṣṇu in the Khmer Khleang style
			5. Eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara from Satingpra
			6. Cola images
			7. Votive tablets
CHAPTER XIII. THE COMMERCIAL BOOM IN THE MALAY PENINSULA IN THE 12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES: IN TAMBRALINGA
	A. THE ASIAN POLITICAL CONTEXT IN THE 12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES
		I. China
		II. The Middle East
		III. India
		IV. Insulinde (The East Indies)
		V. Other Regions of Southeast Asia
			1. Burma
			2. Cambodia
	B. TAMBRALINGA IN THE 12TH CENTURY
		I. Historical Facts Related to the 12th Century
		II. Archaeological and Topological Facts Related to the 12th Century
			1. Khmer statuettes in bronze
				a. A Bronze statuette of Prajñāpāramitā
				b. Another bronze statuette of Prajñāpāramitā
				c. Gaṇeśa
				d. Hevajra
				e. Bronze ornaments
				f. Bronze Buddha from Wat Nangtra
			2. Votive tablets
			3. Khmer ceramics
			4. Chinese ceramics
				The Topological evolution of the east coast
				Tha Rua
				Ban Thai Samphao and Wat Rang
				Satingpra
				Other sites with Chinese ceramics on the east coast
				Pulau Tioman
				Sites with Chinese ceramics on the west coast
			5. The local ceramics of the kilns of Kok Moh
			6. Middle Eastern ceramics and glass
	C. TAMBRALINGA FROM THE END OF THE 12TH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 13TH CENTURY
		I. Historical Facts
		II. The Archaeological Facts
			1. Stūpa from Wat Phra Borommathat
			2. An Inscription from Nakhon Si Thammarat
			3. Stone brackets from Tha Rua
			4. Stones from Mok Lan
			5. The Nakhon Si Thammarat school of sculpture
			6. The Chaiya school of sculpture
				a. The Buddha of Grahi
				b. The head of Buddha from Wat Phra Barommathat (Chaiya)
				c. Stuccoed ornaments from Tham Khuha Sawan
CHAPTER XIV. THE COMMERCIAL BOOM IN THE MALAY PENINSULA IN THE 12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES: IN JIECHA(SOUTH KEDAH)
	A. THE ENTREPOTS PORT SITES
		I. Kampong Pengkalan Bujang
			1. Discovery and location
			2. Excavation
			3. Archaeological finds
				a. Ceramics
				b. Glass
				c. Beads
				d. Miscellaneous objects
			4. Observations
		II. Kampong Simpor Tambang
			1. Discovery and location
			2. Archaeological discoveries
			3. Observations
		III. Kampong Sireh
			1. Discovery and location
			2. Archaeological discoveries
			3. Observations
		IV. Evaluation of the Topographical Evolution of the Region from the 12th to the 14th Century
	B. THE ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS
		I. Brahmanical Architectural Remains
		II. Unidentified or Unexcavated Remains
	C. ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES
		I. The Inscriptions
		II. Sculptures
		III. Imported Ceramics
		IV. Middle Eastern Glassware
		V. Beads
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHRONOLOGY
INDEX
DOCUMENTS
FIGURES