The Human Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review of International Research

Contents
About the Author
1 Definitions and Background Issues
	Introduction
	The Covid Virus. A Brief Travelogue
	Some Definitions: Pandemic, Epidemic and Endemic and Other Related Words
		What Is a Pandemic?
		What Is an Epidemic?
			How Do Epidemics Differ from Pandemics?
		What Is Implied by Endemic?
			Relationships Between the Three Terms
		Epicentre and Outbreak
		Disease Severity and Transmissibility
		Severity
		Transmissibility or Contagiousness: The R, R0 and Rt Indices–Tracking Infectiousness
			The Origins of the Concept of R
			Problems with R0
			Rt (Reff)
			Provide Sensible Reassuring Statistics
	Rapid Antigen Test, Social Distance and Mask Wearing
		Rapid Antigen Test (RAT) Problems
		Social Distance Issues
		Mask Wearing and Aerosol Transmission
	References
2 A Pandemonium of Pandemics and Epidemics
	In the Past
	The Introduction of Methods to Control Disease Spread
		Quarantine
		Statistical Analysis
		Vaccination
		Herd Immunity
		There Is No After Covid!
	Effects of Some Historical Pandemics
	COVID-19: The Current Global Culprit
		Covid Variants
		The Age of Omicron: The Route to Normal? (Whatever that May Be)
			Initial Strategy
			Sweden Did Their Own Thing
			Is Covid as Deadly As Feared? The Australian Experience
			The Reset Strategy
			UK Experience a Warning for Other Countries
			The Australian Approach
			The Pandemic of Reinfection
			Covid and Pregnancy
	COVID Isn’t Over When You Stop Coughing; Beware the Coffin They Carry You off in!
		Transitioning from Intensive Care
		Long Covid
			Research into Long Covid
			Cardiovascular and Diabetes Risk
			Erectile Dysfunction
			Brain Fog
	References
3 Impacts of Fake News and Conspiracy Theory
	Introduction
	The Conspiracy Theories, Fake News and Misinformation Virus
		Political Polarisation
		The Heterogeneity of Virus Restrictions Opposition
		Anti-vaxxers
		Denialism
		Artificial Confirmation Bias from Social Media
		Conspiracy Theories
			Snake Oil Salesmen and Miracle Cures
			Disassembling Symbols and Slogans at Anti-Covid Vaccination Mandate Protests
		Political Beliefs of Protesters
		Thwarting Fake News and Misinformation
			Managing the Pandemic
			The Role of Debunking
			Rogan: Podcasts and Fact-Checks
			The Inoculation Metaphor—Pre-emptive Debunking
			Anti-viral Myth-Busting Measures
			Bad News Game
	The Health Belief Model
	Some Principles to Guide Our Own Behaviour on Social Media
	References
4 Following Doctors’ Orders: Persuasive Communication Delivery
	Following Doctors’ Orders
		Compliance Versus Adherence and Internalisation
	Psychological Studies in Persuasive Communication
		The Source of the Message
			Credibility
			Attractiveness
			Opinion Leaders
		Presenting the Message
			One-Sided or Two-Sided Presentation
			Order of Presentation
			Discrepancy Effects
			Effect of Emotional Factors of Fear and Threat
			Emotion and Risk Perception
		Context of Presentation
			Group Decision Making
			In-Group Pressure
		Social Norms
		The Medium
			Readability: Use Appropriate Language
			Using Visual Materials
		The Recipient/Audience Characteristics in Susceptibility to Persuasion
		Psychological Reactance
	References
5 Impacts on the World of Work
	Why Do People Work?
	Covid Changes to the World of Work
		Unemployment
		Carpe Diem. Changes to Work Contexts
	Working from Home (WFH)
		The Hybrid WFH Arrangement
	Some Major Surveys of WFH and Its Variants
	Legal Complexities
	The Zoom Effect
	Changes to Perceived Reasons for Working Induced by Covid
	Prognosticating the Post-Covid Landscape
	Conclusions
	References
6 Isolation, Group Identity and Community
	The Disruption of Connections: Social Isolation and Loneliness
		Breakdown of Society
			Cultural Responses
			Shared Identity Is Fragile and Needs to Be Nurtured
			Not a Zero-Sum Game. Self Gain Versus Cooperation
	The Known Effects of Loneliness and Social Isolation
		Loneliness an Emerging Issue Even Pre-Covid
	Reviews and Surveys on Isolation and Loneliness in the Covid Context
	Groups and Identity: Not Everyone Panics in a Pandemic
		Disaster and ‘Panic’
			Proximity to Ingroup and Personal Space
		Cooperation: Aligning Individual and Community Interests
		Social Connection Not Social Isolation
		Identity Leadership
	Social Inequality Between Groups
	We Need Friendship to Overcome the Stresses of Isolation
		Government Initiatives
			Some Things You Can Do if You Feel Lonely
			If You Know Someone Who Is Lonely
	Arts Therapy to Dissipate the Isolation Blues
	Aged Care Isolation
	References
7 Impacts on Students, Teachers and Education Delivery
	Implications of the Covid Pandemic for Education
	Impacts on Pre- and Early Primary School Children and Their Parents
	Consequences for Older School Students
	Research on Consequences of School Closure
	Competence Problems in the Switch to Distance Learning for Students
		Student Attributes for Success
	Teachers’ Wellbeing in the Shift to Distance Learning
	Covid Effects on Post-School Education and Scholarship
	Wellbeing of Students
		Should Parents Be More Worried About Mental Health Than Covid?
	Home Schooling
	References
8 Personal Pandemonium: Stress and Mental Health
	Stress
	Biochemical Responses to Stress: The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
		Life Events
			Two Important Personality Factors
			Stress Itself Is a Cause of Stress
			Burnout
	Types of Illness Caused by the Most Stressful Life Events
		Threats to Quality of Life and Human Wellbeing
	The Impact of Covid on Prevalence of Psychological Disorders Among Adults
	Impact of Covid Among Children and Young People
	Large-Scale Multinational Studies of Young People
		Suicide
		Adolescence as a Critical Period
	Psychological and Social Impact of Covid on Healthcare Workers (HCW)
	Domestic Violence (DV)
	Online Medical, Psychological and Psychotherapy Support
	Activities to Manage and Ease Stress
	References
9 Managing Grief and Death
	Introduction
	Grief
	More Recent Approaches to Grief Trajectories
	Loss Can Cause Disease and Mortality Among the Bereaved Too
	Spontaneous Strategies for Mourning Under Covid Restrictions
	Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) and Complicated Grief (CG): Same or Different?
		Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD)
		Complicated Grief
			Symptoms of CG
	Mortality After Covid
	Anticipatory Grief Counselling
	Re-grief After Covid-19; Social Support and Loneliness in Grief
	Was ‘Heaven’ Ever an Ethical Issue?
		Activities to Support Resolution of Grief
			A Set of Resources
	References
10 An Ethical Dilemma: Freedom Versus Authority
	Respect for the Law
		Over-reach Has Infected Protest Rallies and Amplified Concerns About the Ethics and Morality of Some Government Actions
		Sowing the Seeds of Totalitarianism
		Some Legal Responses: The Tide Is Turning
		Freedom to and Freedom From
	Ethics and Covid Regulations
	Ethics of COVID-19 Vaccination and Other Requirements
		Gravity of Threat
		The Vaccines Are Safe and Effective
		Better than the Alternatives
		Coercion Is Proportionate to Risk-Mandated Vaccination
	Biomedical Ethics: Do No Harm. The Four Principles of Biomedical Ethics
		Beneficence
		Non-maleficence
		Autonomy
		Justice
	Ethical Dilemmas in Health Care
		Unequal Distribution of Vaccines
		Moral Distress Among Health Staff
	What Next? Moral Progress After COVID-19
	References
11 The Rush to Publish Research on the Pandemic
	The Scientific Method: Not All Research Is Valid and Reliable
	Methodological Issues Concern
	Dodgy Research and Bogus Science in the Covid Pandemic
		Some Specific Inaccurate Promotion of Covid Scientific Research
	The Danger in Pressure to Undertake Research on an Immediate Problem
		The Preprint
		Scienceploitation
	There Are Models and Models
	Trust in Scientific Research
	References
Epilogue: The Future