The fundamentals of microgrids: development and implementation

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Table of Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 16
Acknowledgments......Page 18
Editor Bio......Page 20
Contributors......Page 22
List of Acronyms......Page 24
Introduction......Page 28
 What Are Microgrids?......Page 36
  Standalone Power......Page 37
  Distributed Energy Resources......Page 38
  Why Would You Need a Microgrid?......Page 39
  Types of Microgrids......Page 41
  How Does a Microgrid Help?......Page 43
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Microgrids......Page 44
  Advantages of Microgrids......Page 46
  Disadvantages of Microgrids......Page 47
 Summary......Page 48
 References......Page 50
 Introduction......Page 52
 The Hydrocarbon Age Has Arrived......Page 53
  Carbon Dioxide Emissions......Page 55
  International Policies—Kyoto and the Paris Agreement......Page 57
  Carbon Management—Adapt or Mitigate?......Page 59
  Costs of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 60
  Potential for Reducing Carbon Emissions......Page 61
  The New Economics of Coal Plants......Page 62
 Transitioning to a Low-Carbon Economy......Page 63
  Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies......Page 64
  Other Environmental Concerns......Page 65
  Microgrids Are One Solution......Page 67
 Conclusions......Page 68
 References......Page 69
  Hydropower Microgrids......Page 72
  The World’s Largest Microgrid in 1883......Page 73
 Combined Heat and Power......Page 74
  Mill Towns as a Model for Today’s Microgrids......Page 75
 Ships Are Microgrids......Page 76
  Sustainable Buildings......Page 77
  Zero Net Energy Buildings......Page 79
  Nanogrids......Page 80
 Regional Grids......Page 81
 The Role of Transportation Systems......Page 83
 Summary......Page 85
 References......Page 86
  What Is the Electric Grid?......Page 88
  Categories of Energy Resources......Page 89
  Large Hydropower......Page 91
  Coal-Fired Electrical Power......Page 92
  Natural Gas-Fired Electrical Power......Page 93
  Diesel Generation......Page 94
  Nuclear Power......Page 95
  Security Issues......Page 97
  System Inefficiencies and Power Outages......Page 99
  Regulation of the Electric Grid......Page 100
 Connecting Microgrids with the Grid......Page 101
 Summary......Page 102
 References......Page 103
  Microgrid Operational Configurations......Page 106
  Planning for Electrical Distribution Systems......Page 108
  Alternative Architectures for AC and DC Microgrids......Page 110
  Power Sources......Page 111
  Microgrid Power Management Systems......Page 112
  Energy Storage Systems......Page 114
 Advanced Microgrids......Page 116
 Microgrid Regulations and Standards......Page 119
  U.S. Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA)......Page 120
  IEEE Standard 1547-2018 for Interconnection and Interoperability of Distributed Energy Resources with Associated Electric Power Systems Interfaces......Page 121
  IEC 61727 International Electrotechnical Commission’s PV System Requirements......Page 122
 Summary......Page 123
 References......Page 124
 The Impact of Renewable Energy......Page 126
 Renewable Generation for Microgrids......Page 128
  Small Hydropower Systems......Page 129
  Landfill Gas Extraction......Page 130
  Solar Energy (Thermal)......Page 132
  Solar Energy (Photovoltaic)......Page 133
  Geothermal Energy......Page 135
  Waste-to-Energy......Page 137
 Comparitive Cost of Generation Systems......Page 138
 Summary......Page 140
 References......Page 141
 Energy Storage Solves Problems......Page 144
 Electrical Energy Storage......Page 145
  Pumped Storage Hydroelectricity......Page 146
  Compressed Air Energy Storage......Page 149
 Electrical/Electrochemical Energy Storage......Page 151
  Lithium-Ion Batteries......Page 152
  Sodium Sulfur Batteries......Page 153
  Zinc-Air Batteries......Page 154
 Thermal Energy Storage......Page 155
 Summary......Page 156
 References......Page 158
 Energy Resources for Microgrids......Page 160
  What Are Hybrid Power Systems?......Page 161
  Advantages of Hybrid Generation......Page 163
  Natural Gas and Renewable Energy Systems......Page 164
  Solar and Wind Power......Page 165
  Solar and Geothermal Energy......Page 166
  Nuclear and Renewable Energy......Page 168
  Fuel Cells and Renewable Hybrid Generation......Page 169
  Renewable Co-Generation......Page 170
 Summary......Page 171
 References......Page 172
  Drivers for Community-Scale Microgrids......Page 176
  U.S. Municipal Renewable Energy Goals......Page 177
 Types of Microgrids......Page 178
  Local Service Microgrids......Page 179
  Military Microgrids......Page 180
  Industrial Microgrids......Page 181
  Utility Distribution Microgrids......Page 182
  Virtual Power Plants......Page 183
  Kodiak Island......Page 185
  Borrego Springs Microgrid......Page 186
  Long Island Community......Page 187
 Summary......Page 188
 References......Page 189
  Access to Electricity in Africa......Page 192
 Microgrid Solar PV System Viability in Ghana......Page 193
 Perspectives on Microgrids......Page 194
  Energy Requirements of Rural Communities......Page 198
 Methodology......Page 199
  Private and Government Microgrid Systems......Page 200
  Technologies......Page 201
  Impact on Expenditures for Fuel......Page 202
 Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 203
  Conclusions......Page 204
 Acknowledgments......Page 205
 References......Page 206
 Introduction......Page 208
 International Overview......Page 209
  Construction Aspects......Page 211
  Planning Principles......Page 212
  Operational Aspects......Page 213
 Local Solution: Container Microgrid......Page 214
  Container Microgrid Assessment......Page 215
 Decision Support for Software Development......Page 217
 Cost of Network Development Alternatives......Page 218
 References......Page 220
 Introduction......Page 224
 Blockchain Opportunities for Energy Trading......Page 225
 DER Challenges in Developing Countries......Page 227
  Blockchain and Smart Meters......Page 228
  Smart Contracts and P2P Energy Trading......Page 229
  Energy Backed Currencies......Page 230
  Blockchain for Electric Vehicle Charging......Page 231
 Key Challenges and Barriers......Page 232
 Conclusion......Page 233
 References......Page 234
 Smart Microgrids and Their Benefits......Page 236
   Mandatory Microgrid Features......Page 237
  Differences between Smart Grids and Smart Microgrids......Page 238
  Benefits of Smart Microgrids......Page 239
  Sensor Systems......Page 240
  Technologies......Page 241
 Examples of Smart Microgrids......Page 242
  Projects Under Development......Page 243
  Projects Deployed......Page 244
  Sustainable Smart Microgrids......Page 245
  Managing Multiple Renewable Microgrids......Page 246
 Policy Concerns......Page 247
 Conclusions......Page 248
 References......Page 249
 Business Case for Renewable Energy-Based Microgrids......Page 252
 Creative Approaches to Project Financing......Page 254
  Cap and Trade Programs......Page 256
  Global Environmental Facility and Clean Development Mechanism......Page 258
  Build-Transfer Agreements......Page 259
 Ways to Combine Project Financing and Delivery......Page 260
  Public–Private Partnerships......Page 261
  Energy Savings Performance Contracts......Page 264
 Challenges to Microgrid Development......Page 265
  Development and Scalability Issues......Page 266
  Electricity Pricing......Page 267
  Cost of Generation Systems, Integration, and Maintenance......Page 268
 Cash Flow Analysis for a Microgrid Project......Page 270
 Summary......Page 274
 References......Page 276
 It’s All About Providing Electricity......Page 280
  Creating Smart Microgrids......Page 281
  Development of Distributed Energy Resources......Page 283
  Wave Energy Systems......Page 284
  Tidal Power......Page 286
  Stirling-Dish Engine......Page 287
  Electricity Generated Using Hydrogen......Page 288
  Small-Scale Nuclear Reactors......Page 289
  Plasma-Arc Gasification......Page 291
  Artificial Intelligence......Page 292
  Wireless Energy Transmission......Page 293
 References......Page 294
Index......Page 298