The Food-Energy-Water Nexus (AESS Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies and Sciences Series)

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Authors
Part I 
Framing the Nexus
	Chapter 1: Introduction
		1.1 The Structure of This Book
		1.2 Fundamental Challenges
		1.3 Why Food, Energy, and Water?
			1.3.1 Criteria
				1.3.1.1 Criterion 1: Critical Consumable Commodities for Human Life
					Food
					Energy
					Water
				1.3.1.2 Criterion 2: Heavy on Physical Infrastructure
					For Food
					For Energy
					For Water
				1.3.1.3 Criterion 3: Footprint-Heavy
				1.3.1.4 Criterion 4: Extreme Affordability
				1.3.1.5 Criterion 5: Governance-Heavy
			1.3.2 Core Processes Influencing the Nexus
				1.3.2.1 Population Growth and Societal Development
				1.3.2.2 Air Pollution
				1.3.2.3 Ecosystem Services
				1.3.2.4 Climate Change
				1.3.2.5 Sociopolitical Economics
			1.3.3 Grand Challenges
		1.4 FEW System Framings in the Literature
			1.4.1 The Macroscope
			1.4.2 Lant Framing
			1.4.3 D’Odorico Framing
			1.4.4 Scanlon Framing
			1.4.5 Bazilian Framing
			1.4.6 Ringler Framing
			1.4.7 California Framing
		1.5 Solving Problems at the Nexus
			1.5.1 Objectives of Studies of FEW systems
			1.5.2 Decision-Making Context
			1.5.3 Projections, Predictions, Assumptions, and “Well-Known” Solutions
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 2: Systems Science
		2.1 Introduction to Systems Science
		2.2 Complex Systems
		2.3 Food Systems
		2.4 Energy Systems
		2.5 Water Systems
		2.6 From Separate Systems to an Integrated System of Systems
			2.6.1 Science
			2.6.2 Sustainability
			2.6.3 Principles of a System of Systems
				2.6.3.1 A Question (or Problem) as a Macroscope Which Defines Boundaries and Scales
				2.6.3.2 Heterogeneous Parts Which Have Mutual Relationships
				2.6.3.3 Structural Arrangements
				2.6.3.4 Emergence
			2.6.4 System of Systems and Models
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 3: Development
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Food, Energy, and Water Security
		3.3 Population
			3.3.1 Demography
			3.3.2 Population and the Legacy of Malthus
		3.4 Development
		3.5 Millennium Development Goals
			3.5.1 Creation of the Millennium Development Goals (2000–2015)
			3.5.2 Outcomes for Food and Water 2000–2015
				3.5.2.1 Prevalence of Underweight Children Under 5 Years of Age
				3.5.2.2 The Proportion of Population Below Minimum Level of Dietary Energy Consumption
				3.5.2.3 The Proportion of the Population Using an Improved Drinking Water Source
				3.5.2.4 The Proportion of the Population Using an Improved Sanitation Facility
				3.5.2.5 Metrics, Data, and Models
			3.5.3 Impact of the Millennium Development Goals
		3.6 Sustainable Energy for All
		3.7 Sustainable Development Goals
			3.7.1 SDG 2 Food
			3.7.2 SDG 6 Water
			3.7.3 SDG 7 Energy
			3.7.4 Other SDGs
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 4: Human Behavior and Adaptation
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Consequences of Overlooking Complexities in Human Behavior
		4.3 Towards More Realistic Models of Human Behavior in the Study of FEW Systems
			4.3.1 FEW System Dynamics
			4.3.2 Behavioral Heterogeneity
			4.3.3 Technology Adoption
			4.3.4 Behavioral Responses and Feedbacks
			4.3.5 Behavioral Spillover
			4.3.6 Individual and Collective Decision-Making in FEW Systems
			4.3.7 Temporal Scales
		4.4 Data and Methods for Studying Human Decision-Making and Behavior
			4.4.1 Primary Data Collection
				4.4.1.1 Surveys
				4.4.1.2 Experiments
			4.4.2 Secondary Data
			4.4.3 Using Data in Decision-Making Models for FEW Systems
		4.5 Case Studies: Key Adaptations and Their Implications for FEW Systems
			4.5.1 Case Study 1: Incorporating Behavioral Heterogeneity into FEW System Models and Policies in the Lake Erie Watershed
				4.5.1.1 Practical Implications
			4.5.2 Case Study 2: Behavioral Spillovers Among Household FEW Consumption Behaviors
				4.5.2.1 Results
				4.5.2.2 Discussion
				4.5.2.3 Practical Implications
		4.6 Conclusions
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 5: Economics
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Economic Aspects of the Nexus
			5.2.1 Incorporation of Demand and Supply Relations
			5.2.2 The Rebound Effect
			5.2.3 Non-market Valuation
			5.2.4 Welfare
			5.2.5 Value of Water in Alternative Uses
			5.2.6 Economic Influences on Observed Nexus Strategies
			5.2.7 Can I Transfer Results from Other Assessments into This One?
			5.2.8 Induced Innovation
			5.2.9 Adding Consideration of Limits
			5.2.10 The Role of Incentives
		5.3 Broader Items
			5.3.1 Externalities
			5.3.2 Income Distribution and Inequality Effects
			5.3.3 Incorporating Dynamic Concerns
			5.3.4 Uncertainty and Risk Aversion
			5.3.5 Public–Private Goods, Incentives, and Roles
			5.3.6 Cost–Benefit: Not Just Economics
		5.4 FEW Nexus Metrics, Data, and Modeling
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 6: International Governance
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Key Elements of International Governance
			6.2.1 Concepts of International Law
			6.2.2 The United Nations System
			6.2.3 World Trade Organization and GATT
				6.2.3.1 Food
				6.2.3.2 Energy
			6.2.4 Human Rights
				6.2.4.1 Food
				6.2.4.2 Water
				6.2.4.3 Energy
		6.3 International Water Law
			6.3.1 Two Conventions
			6.3.2 Principles of International Water Law
				6.3.2.1 The Principle of Equitable and Reasonable Utilization
				6.3.2.2 The No-Harm Rule
				6.3.2.3 Principle of Cooperation
			6.3.3 Interlinkages to Energy and Food
		6.4 International Energy Law
			6.4.1 Main Characteristics
			6.4.2 Interlinkages to Water and Food
				6.4.2.1 Environmental Law
				6.4.2.2 International Climate Regime
		6.5 International Food Law
			6.5.1 Main Characteristics
			6.5.2 Interlinkages to Water and Energy
		6.6 Integrating Food, Energy, and Water Law
		References
			Further Reading
			Case Law
	Chapter 7: Trade
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Rationale for Trade
		7.3 International Food Trade
		7.4 International Energy Trade
		7.5 International Water Trade (and Virtual Water Trade)
		7.6 Modeling Trade in FEW Systems
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 8: US Governance
		8.1 Introduction
			8.1.1 Framing International and US Governance at the Nexus
			8.1.2 Federalism and the Food–Energy–Water Nexus
			8.1.3 Private Property Rights and FEW Resource Regulation
		8.2 The U.S. Regulatory Framework by FEW Sector
			8.2.1 Water
				8.2.1.1 The Clean Water Act
				8.2.1.2 Safe Drinking Water Act
			8.2.2 Energy
			8.2.3 Food
			8.2.4 Food–Energy–Water Nexus Approaches
			8.2.5 Microorganisms in the Spotlight at the FEW Nexus
		8.3 Nexus Regulations at the State and Local Levels
			8.3.1 Water
			8.3.2 Energy
			8.3.3 Food
		8.4 Human Rights as a Guiding Principle?
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 9: Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services
		9.1 Introduction
			9.1.1 Ecological Concepts that Frame the Nexus
			9.1.2 Socio-ecological Systems: A Framing for Ecosystems in the Nexus?
		9.2 Ecosystem Concepts and Mechanisms Relating to the Nexus
			9.2.1 Hydrological and Biogeochemical Cycles
				9.2.1.1 Water Cycle and Atmospheric Processes
				9.2.1.2 Biogeochemical Cycles
				9.2.1.3 Energy Flow
			9.2.2 Land and Soil
				9.2.2.1 Formation and Weathering Processes
				9.2.2.2 Soil–Biological Interactions
				9.2.2.3 The Land–Water Interface
				9.2.2.4 Habitat Connectivity
			9.2.3 Biota
				9.2.3.1 Vegetation
				9.2.3.2 Animals
				9.2.3.3 Microorganisms
		9.3 Valuing Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services
			9.3.1 Why Do We Need to Evaluate the Value of Ecosystem Services?
			9.3.2 How Can It Be Done?
			9.3.3 Ecosystems and the Nexus Within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
		9.4 Case Study: Erosion Control Services and Conservation Agriculture (CA)
		9.5 Conclusion
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 10: Infrastructure
		10.1 Introduction: What Is Infrastructure?
			10.1.1 What Isn’t Infrastructure?
		10.2 Infrastructure Supply Chains Form a Multilayer Network
		10.3 Infrastructure Supports the FEW Supply Chain
			10.3.1 Food
			10.3.2 Energy: Coal (and Mining Products)
			10.3.3 Energy: Natural Gas
			10.3.4 Energy: Liquid Petroleum Fuels, Fuel Oil, and Gasoline
			10.3.5 Energy: Electrical Power
			10.3.6 Water
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 11: Climate Change
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Background
		11.3 Communicating Risk, Probability, and Scientific Confidence
		11.4 Impacts
			11.4.1 Water
				11.4.1.1 Climate Change and the Water Cycle
				11.4.1.2 Climate Change Impacts on Water for Human Consumption
				11.4.1.3 Climate Change Impacts on Water for Food
				11.4.1.4 Climate Change Impacts of Water for Energy
			11.4.2 Food
				11.4.2.1 Climate Change Impacts on Food Production
				11.4.2.2 Climate Change Impacts on Land for Water
				11.4.2.3 Climate Change Impacts on Land for Energy
			11.4.3 Energy
				11.4.3.1 Climate Change and Energy Production and Movement
				11.4.3.2 Climate Change and Energy Demand
				11.4.3.3 Climate Change Impacts on Energy for Water and Food
			11.4.4 Cascading Impacts
				11.4.4.1 Drought in California, USA, 2011–2017
				11.4.4.2 Coastal Bangladesh
		11.5 Climate Mitigation
			11.5.1 Energy
			11.5.2 Food systems
			11.5.3 Water
			11.5.4 Integrated Mitigation
		11.6 Modeling
		References
			Further Reading
Part II: Tools
	Chapter 12: Questions and Scales
		12.1 Introduction to Questions and Scales
		12.2 Connecting Practical Questions with Scientific Capabilities
			12.2.1 Pasteur’s Quadrant and Use-Inspired Science
			12.2.2 Physical Questions and Values Questions
			12.2.3 Decision Science and Questions at Scale
		12.3 Scales of Questions and Decisions
			12.3.1 Scales and Decision-Makers
			12.3.2 Spatial Scales
				12.3.2.1 Micro-scale
				12.3.2.2 Meso-scale
				12.3.2.3 Macro-scale
			12.3.3 Temporal Scales
		12.4 Metrics, Data, Models, Computing, and Decisions
			12.4.1 Metrics
			12.4.2 Data
			12.4.3 Models
			12.4.4 Computing
		Further Reading
	Chapter 13: Metrics
		13.1 Introduction
			13.1.1 The Importance of Metrics
			13.1.2 Metrics and Models
			13.1.3 Metrics and Data
			13.1.4 Metrics and Computing
		13.2 Methodological Frameworks
			13.2.1 Life Cycle Assessment
			13.2.2 Metric Scale
			13.2.3 Metric Taxonomy
				13.2.3.1 Intensive vs. Extensive
				13.2.3.2 Absolute vs. Relative
				13.2.3.3 Summary of Intensive–Extensive and Absolute–Relative Metric Combinations
				13.2.3.4 Example Metrics for a Thermal Power Plant
		13.3 Case Study Texas Drought of 2011
			13.3.1 Background
			13.3.2 Colorado River (Texas) Basin
			13.3.3 Brazos River Basin
			13.3.4 Use of Metrics to Improve Drought Management
		13.4 Conclusion
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 14: Data
		14.1 Introduction: Framing Data Between Metrics and Models
		14.2 Data Attributes: Structure, Quality, Scale and Resolution
			14.2.1 Data Structure (and Type)
			14.2.2 Data Quality
			14.2.3 Data Scale and Resolution
				14.2.3.1 Spatial Scale and Resolution
					Process Scale and Resolution
		14.3 FAIR Data Management and the Data Life Cycle
			14.3.1 The Data Life Cycle
			14.3.2 FAIR Data Management
				14.3.2.1 Examples of Open Data Repositories for FEW (Mostly US-Focused, as of 2018)
		14.4 Privacy and Ethics Principles for FEW Data
			14.4.1 Privacy International Data Protection Principles
		14.5 Domain-Specific Strengths and Gaps in FEW Systems Data
			14.5.1 Strengths
			14.5.2 Gaps
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 15: Modeling
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Overview of Existing FEW System Modeling Approaches
			15.2.1 Food-Centric Approaches to FEW System Modeling
			15.2.2 Energy-Centric Approaches to FEW System Modeling
			15.2.3 Water-Centric Approaches to FEW System Modeling
			15.2.4 Integrated FEW System Modeling Approaches
		15.3 Some Key Research Questions in FEW System Modeling
			15.3.1 Food–Energy
			15.3.2 Energy–Water
			15.3.3 Water–Food
			15.3.4 Food–Energy–Water–Climate
		References
			Food-Centric Approaches to FEWS Modeling
			Energy-Centric Approaches to FEWS Modeling
			Water-Centric Approaches to FEWS Modeling
			Integrated FEWS Modeling Approaches
			Food-Energy (Bioenergy)
			Energy-Water
			Climate-FEWS
			Integrated Assessment Models
			Further Reading
	Chapter 16: Computing
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 What Is Computer Science?
			16.2.1 What Is a Computer Program?
			16.2.2 Computational Complexity Theory
			16.2.3 Programming Languages
		16.3 Challenges in Computer Science
		16.4 Computer Science as a Scientific Tool
			16.4.1 Nexus Data from Computer Science Perspective
			16.4.2 Spatial and Spatiotemporal Datasets
		16.5 Challenges and Opportunities for Computer Science
			16.5.1 Coupling and Fusing Multiple Models
			16.5.2 Numerical Approximation Models
		16.6 Importance of Computing in Nexus via Case Studies
			16.6.1 Case Study: Precision Agriculture
			16.6.2 Case Study: Geodesign for Landscape Modeling
			16.6.3 Case Study: The Global Agricultural Monitoring (GEOGLAM)
		16.7 Summary
		References
			General Computational Science
			Challenges
			Computer Science Tools
			Challenges and Opportunities
			Importance of Computing
			Further Reading
	Chapter 17: Applying Science to Practice
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Applying Decision Science to Practice
		17.3 Tools for Decision-Making
			17.3.1 Data Integration via Remote Sensing and Ground-Based Sources
			17.3.2 Integrated Assessment Modeling of FEW Systems
			17.3.3 Visual Analytics Methods
				17.3.3.1 Mapping FEWS (ArcMap, Open GIS)
				17.3.3.2 Systems Dynamics Modeling Software
			17.3.4 Online Platforms
			17.3.5 Immersive Decision Environments
		17.4 Decision-Making Under Uncertainty
		17.5 Communities of Science and Practice
		17.6 Case Studies
			17.6.1 Case Study 1: Collaborative Geo-Design
			17.6.2 Case Study 2: Visualized Simulations
			17.6.3 Case Study 3: Colorado River Controversy
		References
			Visual Analytics
			Immersive Environments
			Communities of Practice
			Further Reading
Part III: Applications
	Chapter 18: Cities at the Nexus
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Context: The Sociopolitical-Economic Drivers
			18.2.1 The Private Sector and the Economy in Cities
				18.2.1.1 Food Systems
				18.2.1.2 Water Systems
				18.2.1.3 Energy Systems
			18.2.2 The Public Sector and Governance in Cities
				18.2.2.1 Food Systems
				18.2.2.2 Water Systems
				18.2.2.3 Energy Systems
			18.2.3 Civil Society and Cities
				18.2.3.1 Food Systems
				18.2.3.2 Water Systems
				18.2.3.3 Energy Systems
			18.2.4 Global Climate Change
			18.2.5 Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices
				18.2.5.1 Food Systems
				18.2.5.2 Water Systems
				18.2.5.3 Energy Systems
				18.2.5.4 FEW Systems
		18.3 Urban FEW Supply Chain Management
			18.3.1 Supply Chain Management from Resource to End-User at the FEW Nexus
			18.3.2 Sustainable Supply Chain Management (SSCM) of the FEW Nexus
			18.3.3 Approaches to Sustainable FEW Supply in Cities
				18.3.3.1 Centralized Versus Decentralized FEW Supply Systems
				18.3.3.2 Integrated Versus Separated Systems
			18.3.4 Principles for Understanding Urban FEW Supply
		18.4 Integrated FEW Crises Due to Poverty and Exclusion
			18.4.1 Examples of Urban Nexus Insecurity Impacts
			18.4.2 Factors Contributing to and Approaches for Addressing Urban Nexus Insecurity
		18.5 Case Studies: Nexus Innovation at the City Level
			18.5.1 Portland, OR, USA
			18.5.2 Detroit, MI, USA
			18.5.3 Curitiba, Brazil
			18.5.4 Tianjin Eco-City
		18.6 Conclusion
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 19: Watersheds at the Nexus
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 The Great Lakes Region of North America
			19.2.1 Background
			19.2.2 Watershed Issues at the Food–Energy–Water Nexus
			19.2.3 Watershed Governance
		19.3 The Amazon River Basin of South America
			19.3.1 Background
			19.3.2 Watershed Issues at the Food–Energy–Water Nexus
			19.3.3 Watershed Governance
		19.4 Lake Victoria Basin in East Africa
			19.4.1 Background
			19.4.2 Watershed Issues at the Food–Energy–Water Nexus
			19.4.3 Watershed Governance
		19.5 Conclusions
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 20: Managing Human Conflicts
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Existing Conflicts Over Food, Energy, and Water Systems
			20.2.1 Examples of Domestic or Regional Conflicts
			20.2.2 Underlying Dynamics for the FEW Nexus
			20.2.3 Climate Change as a “Threat Multiplier”
		20.3 Toolkit to Address and Manage Conflicts
			20.3.1 Traditional Dispute Resolution Practices
			20.3.2 Negotiation
			20.3.3 Serious Games
			20.3.4 Collaborative Governance, Facilitation, and Stakeholder Engagement
				20.3.4.1 Example #1: The Chehalis River Basin of Washington State
				20.3.4.2 Example #2: Louisiana Speaks
				20.3.4.3 Example #3: The Murray-Darling River Basin of Australia
			20.3.5 Mediation
			20.3.6 Arbitration
			20.3.7 Adjudication in the Courts
			20.3.8 International Agreements: Goals, Treaties, and Conventions
		20.4 Conflict Resolution Toolkit
		20.5 Conclusion/Summary
		References
			Further Reading
	Chapter 21: Opportunities at the Nexus
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Situations Favorable to the Application of Nexus Science to Practice
			21.2.1 Acute Scarcity of Two or More FEW Commodities
			21.2.2 Significant Externalities Arising from FEW Decisions and Stakeholder Actions
			21.2.3 Potential Benefits to Many Communities from Coordinated Actions
		21.3 Opportunities
			21.3.1 Communities of Science and Practice
			21.3.2 Defining Questions
			21.3.3 Metrics
			21.3.4 Data
			21.3.5 Models
			21.3.6 Computing
			21.3.7 Communication
			21.3.8 Collaborative Solutions
		21.4 Case Studies in Opportunity
			21.4.1 Watershed Integration Case Study
			21.4.2 Environmental Governance Case Study
			21.4.3 Data Fusion Case Study
		References
			Further Reading
Appendix A: Institutions
Appendix B: Treaties, Declarations, and Laws
Appendix C: Data Sources
	Chapter 3: Development
	Chapter 4: Human Behavior and Adaptation
	Chapter 8: US Governance
	Chapter 7: Trade
	Chapter 8: US Governance
	Chapter 9: Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services
	Chapter 11: Climate Change
	Chapter 15: Modeling
	Chapter 16: Computing
Appendix D: Educational Resources
	General
	Chapter 3: Development
	Chapter 14: Data
	Chapter 15: Modeling
	Chapter 16: Computing
	Chapter 17: Applying Science to Practice
	Chapter 18: Cities at the Nexus
	Chapter 19: Watersheds at the Nexus
	Chapter 20: Managing Human Conflicts
Glossary
Index