The Evolution and Fossil Record of Parasitism: Coevolution and Paleoparasitological Techniques (Topics in Geobiology, 50)

Foreword
Contents
Chapter 1: The Fossil Record of Parasitism: Its Extent and Taphonomic Constraints
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Exceptional Fossil Windows on Parasite–Host Evolution
		1.2.1 Modes of Exceptional Fossil Preservation
		1.2.2 Burgess Shale-Type Preservation and Parasitism
		1.2.3 Orsten-Type Preservation and Parasitism
		1.2.4 Petrification, Nodular Preservation, and Parasitism
		1.2.5 Lithographic Limestone Preservation and Parasitism
		1.2.6 Bituminous/Oil Shales, Coal Deposits, and Parasitism
		1.2.7 Conservation Traps (Amber, Leech Cocoons, and Coprolites) and Parasitism
		1.2.8 Other Types of Parasite Lagerstätten
		1.2.9 Evolutionary History of Parasitism Recorded in Konservat-Lagerstätten
	1.3 Potential and Limits of Lagerstätten
	1.4 Host Remains as Proxy for Parasite–Host Interactions
		1.4.1 Possibilities and Limits of Decay-Resistant Propagules in Host Coprolites
		1.4.2 Possibilities and Limits of Pathologies in Skeletal Hosts
	1.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 2: Importance of Data on Fossil Symbioses for Parasite–Host Evolution
	2.1 Importance of Meanings to Address the Fossil Record
		2.1.1 Symbioses and Paleosymbioses as Primary References
		2.1.2 Parasitism as Subclass of Symbioses
	2.2 Evidence of Past Symbiotic Interactions
		2.2.1 Involving Extinct Taxa
			As Hosts
			As Colonizers
			In General
		2.2.2 Unreported in Modern Nature
	2.3 Constraints on the Evolution of Associations
		2.3.1 Ancestry of Organisms and Associations
		2.3.2 Evolution of Associations over Time
			General Rules in Species Encountering, Attachment and Symbiont Internalization
			Resistance Stages and Symbiotic Lifestyles
			Infestations and Host-Symbiont Resilience
	2.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 3: Biodiversity and Host–Parasite (Co)Extinction
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Host–Parasite Biodiversity
	3.3 Co-extinction
	3.4 Dilution Effect
	3.5 Host Switching
	3.6 Parasites as Drivers and Regulators
	3.7 What Can the Fossil Record Tell Us?
	References
Chapter 4: Evolutionary History of Colonial Organisms as Hosts and Parasites
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Sponges as Hosts of Parasites
		4.2.1 Stromatoporoids
		4.2.2 Other Sponges
	4.3 Corals as Hosts of Parasites
		4.3.1 Tabulates
		4.3.2 Rugose Corals
		4.3.3 Mesozoic to Recent Corals
	4.4 Bryozoans as Hosts of Parasites
	4.5 Possible Parasites in Graptolites
	4.6 Colonial Organisms as Parasites
	4.7 Discussion
	References
Chapter 5: Crustaceans as Hosts of Parasites Throughout the Phanerozoic
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Isopod Swellings in Decapod Crustaceans
		5.2.1 General Information
		5.2.2 Global Meso- and Cenozoic Data
		5.2.3 Abundance vs. Infestation Percentage per Taxon
		5.2.4 Host Preference
		5.2.5 Size of Parasitized Versus Non-parasitized Specimens
	5.3 Rhizocephalan Barnacles in Decapod Crustaceans
	5.4 Ciliates on Ostracods
	5.5 “Pentastomids” on Ostracods
	5.6 Modern Evidence with Preservation Potential
	Appendix 1 Genus and family level infestation percentages for decapods from the Late Jurassic (Tithonian) of Ernstbrunn, Austria
	Appendix 2 Sizes of infested and non-infested carapaces for two decapod species from the Late Jurassic (Tithonian) of Ernstbrunn, Austria
	References
Chapter 6: Trilobites as Hosts for Parasites: From Paleopathologies to Etiologies
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Parasites and Pathologies in Modern Marine Arthropods
	6.3 Parasites and Pathologies in Trilobites
	6.4 Types of Pathologies
		6.4.1 Neoplasia
		6.4.2 Borings
		6.4.3 Shell Disease Syndrome
		6.4.4 Pits
		6.4.5 Other Types of Abnormalities Less Confidently Linked with Parasitism
		6.4.6 Epizoa and Epicoles
	6.5 Possible Culprits
	6.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7: Evolutionary History of Cephalopod Pathologies Linked with Parasitism
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Parasites and Pathologies in Cephalopods
	7.3 Pathologies Attributed to Parasitism in Externally Shelled Cephalopods
		7.3.1 Blisters and Pits
		7.3.2 Volume-Enlarging Pathologies
		7.3.3 Disturbances in Apertural Shell Growth
		7.3.4 Symmetropathologies
			Symmetropathologies in the Shell
			Symmetropathologies in the Septa
		7.3.5 Pathological Gigantism
		7.3.6 Other Pathologies Attributed to Parasitism in Externally Shelled Cephalopods
		7.3.7 Negative Effects of Epizoa and Bioerosion
	7.4 Pathologies in Coleoids
		7.4.1 Lumps and Blisters in Internally Shelled Cephalopods
		7.4.2 Additional Injuries Attributed to Parasitism in Internally Shelled Cephalopods
	7.5 Prevalence of Pathologies Within Assemblages
	7.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 8: Bivalve Mollusks as Hosts in the Fossil Record
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Parasites of Modern Bivalves
	8.3 Parasites of Bivalves in the Fossil Record
		8.3.1 Foraminifera as Parasites in the Fossil Record
		8.3.2 Porifera as Parasites in the Fossil Record
		8.3.3 Hydroids as Parasites in the Fossil Record
		8.3.4 Platyhelminthes as Parasites in the Fossil Record
		8.3.5 Annelida as Parasites in the Fossil Record
		8.3.6 Phoronida as Parasites in the Fossil Record
		8.3.7 Mollusca as Parasites in the Fossil Record
		8.3.8 Bryozoa as Parasites in the Fossil Record
		8.3.9 Unknown Phyla as Parasites in the Fossil Record
	8.4 Phanerozoic Scale Trends in Parasite-Host Interactions Among Bivalves
	8.5 Trematode-Bivalve Parasite-Host Dynamics Through Sea-Level Cycles
	8.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 9: Parasitism of Paleozoic Crinoids and Related Stalked Echinoderms: Paleopathology, Ichnology, Coevolution, and Evolutionary Paleoecology
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Parasitic Pits in Stalked Echinoderms
	9.3 Platyceratid Gastropods Attached to Stalked Echinoderms
	9.4 Other Forms of Parasitic Interactions Involving Stalked Echinoderms
	9.5 Discussion
		9.5.1 Ichnology
		9.5.2 Coevolution
		9.5.3 Macroevolutionary Implications
	9.6 Summary
	References
Chapter 10: Deep Origin of Parasitic Disease in Vertebrates
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Co-divergence and Host Response: Vertebrates as Hosts
	10.3 Endoparasites
		10.3.1 Nematodes
		10.3.2 Cestodes
		10.3.3 Trematodes
		10.3.4 Protozoa
			Amoebozoa and Ciliates
			Flagellates
			Sporozoans
				Coccidians
	10.4 Ectoparasites and Arthropod Vectors
		10.4.1 Lice
		10.4.2 Fleas
		10.4.3 Mites
		10.4.4 Ticks
	10.5 Bacterial and Fungal Infections
	10.6 Viral Infection
	10.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ancient Nonhuman Vertebrates: Evidence from Coprolites and Other Materials
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Fossil Gastrointestinal Parasites
		11.2.1 Fossil Holocene Parasites from Nonhuman Vertebrates
			Holocene Coprolites
			Fossil Holocene Raptor Pellets
			Gut Regions of Fossil Holocene Carcasses
			Sediment from Frequented Sites
		11.2.2 Pre-Holocene Parasites from Nonhuman Vertebrates
			Pre-Holocene Lithified Coprolites
			Gut Regions of Pre-Holocene Carcasses
	11.3 Taphonomy of Parasites and Lithified Coprolites
	11.4 Archaeological Perspectives on Fossil Parasites from Lithified Coprolites
	11.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12: Blood to Molecules: The Fossil Record of Blood and Its Constituents
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Blood Residues and Vessels
	12.3 Blood Cells
	12.4 Blood Parasites In Situ
	12.5 Molecular Components of Blood
		12.5.1 DNA
		12.5.2 Protein
		12.5.3 Small Molecules
	12.6 Taphonomy
	12.7 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 13: The Molecular Clock as a Tool for Understanding Host-Parasite Evolution
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 The Molecular Clock
	13.3 Bayesian Divergence Time Estimation
	13.4 Substitution Models
		13.4.1 Models of Molecular Evolution
		13.4.2 Models of Morphological Evolution
	13.5 Molecular Clock Models
	13.6 Molecular Clock Calibrations
		13.6.1 Minimum and Maximum Constraints on Divergence Times
		13.6.2 Incorporating Extinct Samples into the Tree
		13.6.3 The Fossil Record of Parasites as a Source of Calibrations
		13.6.4 The Fossil Record of Hosts as a Source of Calibrations
		13.6.5 Caveats to Using Hosts as Calibrations
		13.6.6 Biogeographic Constraints on Divergence Times
	13.7 Wolbachia: A Case Study
	13.8 Prospects for Understanding the Coevolutionary Dynamics of Host and Parasites
	References
Chapter 14: Horizontal Transfer of Transposons as Genomic Fossils of Host-Parasite Interactions
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 How Can Horizontal Transposon Transfers Inform About Host-Parasite Associations?
	14.3 Examples for Host-Parasite HTT
		14.3.1 LTR Retrotransposons
		14.3.2 Non-LTR Retrotransposons
		14.3.3 DNA Transposons
	14.4 Possible Vectors Facilitating Host-Parasite HTT
	14.5 Limitations and Open Questions
	References
Index