The European Union and the Evolving Architectures of International Economic Agreements

Preface
	References
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Abbreviations
Part I: Politics and Culture
	Chapter 1: Culture in External Relations: The EU and its International Economic Agreements
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 The Understanding of Culture and ‘Culture in External Relations’
		1.3 Culture in International Agreements
		1.4 The EU’s Evolving Approach to Culture in External Relations
		1.5 Culture in Selected EU International Economic Agreements
			1.5.1 Protocols on Cultural Cooperation
			1.5.2 Cultural Exception Clauses
			1.5.3 Chapters on Culture
		1.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 2: Beyond Trade – The Politics of Trade Agreements and Interstate Competition and Geoeconomics as a Basis for EU and US Preferential Trade Agreements
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Why Do States Enter into PTAs?
		2.3 The Increasing Importance of Geoeconomics in PTAs
		2.4 Geoeconomic Novelties in EU and US PTAs
		2.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Geopolitics, Geoeconomics and the EU Trade Policy: The Relationship with ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) as a Test Case
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 The EU and ASEAN
			3.2.1 Same-Same But Different?
			3.2.2 EU Evolving Trade Policy and Its Pursuit of an EU-ASEAN FTA
			3.2.3 Bi-Regional EU-ASEAN FTA: What Went Wrong?
		3.3 From Bi-Regionalism to Bilateralism
			3.3.1 Bilateral FTAs Between the EU and ASEAN Countries
			3.3.2 Trade for All – Moving Forward with a Progressive Agenda?
			3.3.3 EU’S Trade Policy Under a Geopolitical Commission
		3.4 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Investment and Trade
	Chapter 4: From Investment Protection to Sustainability (via a Multilateral Investment Court): The EU and a New Universal Model for International Investment Agreements?
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 The Fundamentals of the Current System: Investment Protection
		4.3 The Envisaged Reform: A Procedural Focus
		4.4 Sustainability, UNFCCC, BITs and MITs: Systemic Inconsistencies
			4.4.1 The UNFCCC Regime
			4.4.2 BITs, MITs and Sustainability
		4.5 Refocusing the Investment Reform
			4.5.1 Prioritising Carbon-Neutral Investment
			4.5.2 New Procedures for Sustainable Investment
		4.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: New Wine in Old Wineskins? Climate Cases and the Energy Charter Treaty
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 The Role of the Environment in the Energy Charter Treaty
			5.2.1 Environmental Objectives in the Energy Charter Treaty’s Preamble
			5.2.2 The Energy Charter Treaty’s Environmental Provisions: Articles 19 and 24
		5.3 Application and Interpretation of the Energy Charter Treaty’s Environmental Provisions in Climate Disputes
		5.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6: Unsustainable Investment: Scoping Expropriation without Compensation
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Expropriation and the Right to Regulate: Theoretical Approaches
		6.3 Treaty Provisions on the Right to Regulate
		6.4 Conditions and Limits
		6.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Screening Foreign Direct Investment in Europe: Having a Tiger by the Tail?
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Why a New Regulatory Mechanism? FDI as a Double-Edged Sword
		7.3 EU Constitutional Framework in the Field of Foreign Investment
			7.3.1 Between EU External Trade/Investment and Free Movement of Capital
			7.3.2 The Choice of the Legal Basis for Regulation 2019/452
		7.4 Regulatory Framework of the EU FDI Screening Mechanism
			7.4.1 The Scope of the Regulation: FDI and Essential Functions of EU Member States
			7.4.2 Substantive Criteria: Sectors and Factors Triggering FDI Screening
			7.4.3 The EU Cooperation Mechanism
		7.5 Implementation of the Regulation and Policy Trends
		7.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: Trade in Services and Mutual Recognition of Professional Qualifications in the EU and International Systems: Multilateralism à la Carte?
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 An Overview of Trade in Services
		8.3 Regulating Professional Services: Consumer Protection or Protectionism?
		8.4 The Stalling of Multilateral Efforts
		8.5 Features of Professional Qualifications MRAs
		8.6 The European Union: From Harmonisation to Equivalence, and Partial Return to Harmonisation
		8.7 Mutual Recognition in the Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement
		8.8 Professional Qualifications: Mutual Recognition Agreements in the EU’s Free Trade Agreements with Australia and NZ
		8.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: Customary International Law?
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Climate Policy and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: Shrimp Products, Solar Cells, and the Importance of Coordination
		9.3 Border Carbon Adjustments and the EU
			9.3.1 The EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism
			9.3.2 Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms in EU FTAs
		9.4 Are CBAMs Progressing Towards Customary International Law?
			9.4.1 Paris Agreement Imperatives
			9.4.2 State Practice
				9.4.2.1 Support and Opposition for CBAMs
				9.4.2.2 Major Economies: The US and the PRC
			9.4.3 CBAMs as Universal versus Regional Custom
		9.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: The EU-US Transatlantic Trade and Technology Council: Shifting Multilateralism Through Bilateralism and Institutions?
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 A History of Failing to Cooperate and Disputes
		10.3 The Law and Governance of EU-US Trade Relations and Its Forums
		10.4 Background to the TTC
		10.5 TTC and Global Law-Making?
		10.6 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Foundational Rights and Procedures
	Chapter 11: TRIPS+ IP Privileges for Pharmaceuticals and Agricultural Chemicals: EU and US Treaties
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Competing Interests in Patent Policy: Searching for the Right Balance
			11.2.1 TRIPS and the New Patent Privileges
			11.2.2 Cost to Consumers Versus Benefit to Patent Holders
			11.2.3 TRIPS Articles Favouring Consumers
		11.3 TRIPS and TRIPS+ Patent Privileges for Pharmaceuticals
			11.3.1 The US Patent Agenda
			11.3.2 Very Low Standards for Granting Patents
			11.3.3 The EU Patent Agenda
			11.3.4 Term Extensions for Marketing Approval Delays
			11.3.5 Extending Patent Duration Through WTO DSBs
		11.4 Data ‘Protection’ for Pharmaceuticals and Agricultural Chemicals
			11.4.1 The Purpose and Ethics of Marketing Approval for Medicines
			11.4.2 The Design of Clinical Trials and Access to the Data
			11.4.3 Data Protection Trade Agenda
			11.4.4 Agricultural Chemicals and Protections for Animals
		11.5 Should IP Chapters Remain in Trade Agreements?
		References
	Chapter 12: Compulsory Licences During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A European and International Perspective
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 The International Legal Framework
		12.3 Compulsory Licences During the COVID Pandemic
			12.3.1 Israel
			12.3.2 Hungary
			12.3.3 Russia
			12.3.4 Bolivia and Canada
			12.3.5 India
		12.4 COVID Triggered Amendments of National Laws
		12.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 13: The ‘Crowd-Out Effect’ of GI Provisions in EU FTAs: Cheeses Exported to South Korea
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 How Crowd-Out Would Happen: The Conditions and Limitations
		13.3 EU’s Cheese GIs in South Korea: Crowd-Out at Work?
			13.3.1 EU-South Korea FTA with the List of GI-Protected Cheese Names
			13.3.2 US Countermeasures in a Side Letter for the US-Korea FTA
			13.3.3 Effects of the US Restriction – Who Benefits from It?
			13.3.4 What Products Are Crowded out, and What Remedies Are Available?
		13.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 14: The Evolutionary Process of Tax Treaties and Its Interplay with EU Law: A Critical Analysis
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Approaches to Prevent Double Taxation
			14.2.1 The Unilateral Approach
			14.2.2 The Bilateral Approach
			14.2.3 The Multilateral Approach
		14.3 The Network of Bilateral Double Tax Agreements
			14.3.1 The Status Quo
			14.3.2 The Multilateral Instrument: A Step Forward
			14.3.3 Tax Information Exchange Agreements: A Step Backward
		14.4 Dichotomy Between Bilateralism and Multilateralism: The Arm’s Length Principle in EU Case Law
			14.4.1 The Arm’s Length Principle
			14.4.2 The Arm’s Length Principle Under the EU Case-Law: Apple, Fiat and Starbucks
		14.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 15: Data Flow v. Data Protection: Achieving Cross-Broder Harmonisation via EU Horizontal Clauses?
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Data Flow v. Data Protection
		15.3 Data Protection as a Fundamental Right: The EU Heightened Framework
		15.4 EU Horizontal Clauses in International Economic Agreements
		15.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 16: Non-economic Conditionality for Comprehensive EU International Economic Agreements?
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Meaning of and Rationale for Fundamental Rights Clauses in Economic Agreements
		16.3 Recent Developments
			16.3.1 Regional Comprehensive Economic Partenrship
			16.3.2 Canada-United States-Mexico Agreement
			16.3.3 Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership
			16.3.4 African Continental Free Trade Area
			16.3.5 MERCOSUR
			16.3.6 Pacific Alliance
		16.4 The EU’s Innovative ‘Essential Elements’ Clause
			16.4.1 Relevance
			16.4.2 Functioning
		16.5 An Effective Mechanism for Comprehensive Economic Agreements?
		16.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: The Singapore Convention on Mediation: National Implementation Practices and EU Prospects
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Background of the Singapore Convention
		17.3 The Scope of the Singapore Convention
		17.4 National Ratification Practices
		17.5 EU Prospects
		17.6 Conclusion
		References
Conclusion
Index