The European Community and Marine Environmental Protection in the International Law of the Sea (Publications on Ocean Development)

Acknowledgements......Page 8
Table of Contents\r......Page 10
Abbreviations......Page 20
1 Critical Issues and Central Questions......Page 24
2 Scope and Themes of the Book......Page 27
3 Outline of the Book......Page 28
4 Reference Framework......Page 30
1.1 Introduction......Page 32
1.1.1 Degradation of the Marine Environment......Page 33
1.1.2 The Law of the Sea and the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment......Page 34
1.2.1 (Pre-UNCED) Principles of Customary International Law......Page 37
1.2.2.1 Jurisdictional Regime......Page 39
1.2.2.2 Part XII......Page 42
1.2.3 Chapter 17 of Agenda 21......Page 45
1.2.4 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)......Page 47
1.3.1 \"Generally Accepted\" and \"Applicable\" International Rules and Standards Adopted by the \"Competent International Organizations\"......Page 48
1.3.2 Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)......Page 50
1.3.3 UN Agenda Item on Oceans and the Law of the Sea......Page 51
1.4.1 Focus on Regional Cooperation......Page 54
1.4.2 The 1992 OSPAR Convention......Page 56
1.4.3 The 1992 Helsinki Convention......Page 58
1.4.4 The 1976 Barcelona Convention (BARCON) and its Protocols, as Amended......Page 60
1.5 The Present Limits of and Future Challenges for the International Regime......Page 62
1.6 Conclusions......Page 63
2.1 Introduction......Page 66
2.2.1 Legal Subjects......Page 67
2.2.2 The EC System as a \"New Order of International Law\"......Page 68
2.2.3 Sources of EC (Environmental) Law......Page 69
2.2.4 EC Institutions......Page 72
2.2.5 EC Decision-Making Processes......Page 76
2.2.6 EC Compliance Mechanisms......Page 77
2.3.1 The Attribution Principle......Page 79
2.3.1.1 EC Objectives......Page 80
2.3.1.2 Legal Bases for EC \"Internal\" Competence......Page 82
2.3.2.1 The EC\'s International Legal Personality......Page 84
2.3.2.2 EC External Competence under EC Law......Page 85
2.3.3 The Nature of EC Competence: \"Exclusive\" or \"Shared\"?......Page 87
2.4.1 The Principle of Subsidiarity......Page 89
2.4.2 The Principle of Proportionality......Page 90
2.4.3 Guiding Principles of the EC \"Environmental\" Policy......Page 91
2.5 The \"Geographical\" Scope of EC Environmental Competence......Page 94
2.6 Conclusions......Page 96
3.1 Introduction......Page 100
3.1.1 The State of Europe\'s Marine Environment......Page 101
3.2 The Marginal Role of Marine Environmental Protection within EC Law......Page 102
3.2.1 Institutional Fragmentation......Page 104
3.2.2 Conflict of Interests......Page 105
3.2.3 The Principles of Subsidiarity and Proportionality......Page 106
3.2.4 The EC\'s Multilateral Approach to Ocean Preservation......Page 107
3.3 The EC and the Global Framework Regime......Page 109
3.4.1 MEAs and Regional Seas Conventions......Page 110
3.4.2 The EC and Multilateral Policy-Making in Ocean Affairs......Page 111
3.4.4 EC Legislation to Protect and Preserve the Marine Environment......Page 113
3.4.5 The EC\'s Action to Implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21......Page 115
3.5.1 The European Marine Strategy......Page 117
3.5.2 The Proposal for a Marine Strategy Directive (MSD)......Page 121
3.5.3 Towards an Integrated European \"Maritime\" Policy?......Page 124
3.5.4 Strengthening the EC External Policy on Oceans and Seas......Page 127
3.6 Conclusions......Page 128
4.1 Introduction......Page 130
4.2.1 The Legal Effect of EC \"Exclusive\" External Competence......Page 131
4.2.2 Pre-emptive Effects of EC Law......Page 133
4.2.2.1 \"Minimum\", \"Total\" or \"Exhaustive\" Harmonization?......Page 134
4.2.2.2 International Rules: Minimum or Maximum Standards?......Page 137
4.2.2.3 The \"Necessity Test\"......Page 138
4.2.3 Member States\' Residual Powers in Matters under their Exclusive Competence or outside EC Legislation......Page 139
4.2.4 The Legal Effects of Shared Competences......Page 141
4.2.4.1 The Duty of Cooperation and Close Coordination......Page 142
4.2.4.2 The Phenomenon of \"Mixity\"......Page 143
4.3.1 Joint Participation under International Law: the \"Participation Clauses\"......Page 145
4.3.1.1 Declaration of Competence......Page 146
4.3.1.2 The Link between EC and Member States\' Participation......Page 147
4.3.1.4 Voting Rights......Page 148
4.3.2 Joint Participation in Mixed Agreements under EC Law: Procedural Aspects......Page 149
4.3.2.2 The Council\'s Authorization......Page 150
4.3.2.3 \"Community Coordination\" and \"Common Positions\"......Page 152
4.3.2.5 The Right to Conduct Negotiations and the Right to Speak......Page 155
4.3.2.6 Special Consultation Committees......Page 156
4.3.2.7 Conclusion, Signature and Ratification......Page 157
4.3.2.8 Future Modifications, Amendment and Withdrawal......Page 159
4.3.2.9 Implementation......Page 160
4.3.2.10 Responsibility vis-à-vis Non-EC Parties......Page 161
4.4 The Legal Effects of a Mixed Agreement within EC Law......Page 162
4.5 The EC and International Organizations (IOs)......Page 166
4.6 The EU Constitution and Mixed Agreements......Page 169
4.7 Conclusions......Page 170
5.1 Introduction......Page 172
5.2.1 EC Participation in the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III)......Page 173
5.2.2 Annex IX and the \"EEC Participation Clauses\"......Page 176
5.2.2.1 Linking the Community\'s Participation to that of the Majority of its Member States......Page 178
5.2.2.2 The Extent of Participation and Rights and Obligations......Page 179
5.2.2.3 Declaration of Competences......Page 180
5.2.2.4 Responsibility, Liability and Dispute Settlement......Page 182
5.2.3 The EC\'s Signature and Declaration upon Signature......Page 183
5.2.4 The EC\'s \"Formal Confirmation\" and Declaration upon \"Formal Confirmation\"......Page 185
5.2.6 Limits of Annex IX......Page 188
5.2.7.1 EC Participation in the Bodies Set Out by the LOSC......Page 189
5.2.7.2 EC Participation in the UN Debate under the Agenda Item on Oceans and the Law of the Sea......Page 190
5.2.7.3 The Council\'s Working Party on the Law of the Sea (COMAR) and Community Coordination in LOSCrelated Issues......Page 191
5.2.7.4 The \"Common Foreign Policy\" Format and the Limited Role of the EC......Page 192
5.3.1 The EC\'s Accession to the 1992 OSPAR Convention......Page 194
5.3.2 EC Participation in the 1992 OSPAR Convention......Page 197
5.4.1 The EC\'s Accession to the 1992 Helsinki Convention......Page 199
5.4.2 EC Participation in the 1992 Helsinki Convention......Page 202
5.5.1 The EC\'s Accession to the BARCON......Page 203
5.5.2 EC Participation in the BARCON......Page 205
5.6 Conclusions......Page 207
6.1 Introduction......Page 210
6.1.1 Pollution from the Maritime Transport of Oil: Extent of the Phenomenon......Page 212
6.1.2 The Need to Strike a Balance between Conflicting Interests, Uniformity and Flexibility......Page 214
6.1.3 The Global Legal Framework for the Prevention of Oil Pollution from Shipping......Page 215
6.2.1 Flag States......Page 216
6.2.2.1 Territorial Sea......Page 219
6.2.2.2 Straits Used for International Navigation......Page 221
6.2.2.3 The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)......Page 222
6.2.3.1 Legislative Jurisdiction......Page 224
6.2.3.2 Enforcement Jurisdiction......Page 227
6.3 Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 and Oil Pollution from Shipping......Page 228
6.4.1 The International Maritime Organization (IMO)......Page 230
6.4.2 Global Regulatory Instruments......Page 232
6.5.1 Paris Memorandum of Understanding on Port State Control (Paris MOU)......Page 235
6.5.2 The 1992 Helsinki Convention......Page 237
6.5.3 The 1976 BARCON and its Protocol, as amended......Page 242
6.5.4 The North-East Atlantic......Page 245
6.6 Weaknessess of the Existing International Regime......Page 248
6.7.1 The Establishment of the Common Policy on Safe Seas (CPSS)......Page 250
6.7.2 EC Decision-Making in Maritime Safety and Environmental Aspects of Shipping......Page 253
6.7.3 The EC as a Flag State......Page 255
6.8 EC Legislative Measures to Implement the International Regime on Oil Pollution from Shipping......Page 257
6.8.1 Strengthening the Standards for the Transport of Oil in Single-Hull Tankers......Page 258
6.8.2 Classification Societies......Page 263
6.8.3 Strengthening Port State Control......Page 264
6.8.4 Vessel Traffic Monitoring and Information System......Page 267
6.8.5 European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA)......Page 270
6.8.7 Ship-Source Pollution and the Introduction of Penalties for Infringements......Page 271
6.8.8 The Way Forward: the Erika III Package......Page 277
6.9 EC Action at the International Level......Page 280
6.9.1 Division of External Competence......Page 281
6.9.2 EC Participation and Coordination in the IMO......Page 284
6.9.2.1 The EC\'s Accession to the IMO Convention......Page 290
6.9.3 EC Participation in the UN Discussions under the Agenda Item \"Oceans and the Law of the Sea\"......Page 293
6.9.4 EC Participation in the 1992 Helsinki Convention......Page 294
6.9.5 EC Participation in BARCON......Page 297
6.10 The Duty to Give Effect to Existing GAIRAS and to Enforce Them in the Community......Page 299
6.11 The Commission\'s Suggestion to Amend the LOSC......Page 302
6.12 Final Observations......Page 305
7.1 Introduction......Page 310
7.2 The Global Legal Framework for the Control of Ocean Dumping and Incineration......Page 311
7.2.1 Ocean Dumping and Incineration: Extent of the Phenomenon......Page 306
7.2.2 The LOSC Jurisdictional Framework for Controlling Ocean Dumping......Page 313
7.2.3 The 1972 London (Dumping) Convention......Page 315
7.2.4 The Revision Process and the 1996 Protocol......Page 318
7.3.1 The 1972 Oslo Convention and the 1992 OSPAR Convention......Page 322
7.3.2 The 1992 Helsinki Convention......Page 326
7.3.3 The 1976 BARCON and its Dumping Protocol, as Amended......Page 328
7.4 Weaknesses of the Existing International Regime......Page 330
7.5.1 EC Competence Concerning Ocean Dumping and Incineration......Page 331
7.5.2 The 1976 Proposal for a Directive on Ocean Dumping......Page 333
7.5.3 The 1985 Proposal for a Directive on Ocean Dumping and Incineration, as Amended......Page 335
7.5.4 Communication from the Commission on the Removal and Disposal of Disused Offshore Installations......Page 337
7.5.5 Reasons Behind the Failure of the Proposed Directives......Page 338
7.5.6 EC Legislation covering Ocean Dumping and Incineration......Page 339
7.5.7 Reasons Behind the Regulation of Ocean Dumping within the Framework of the EC Waste Management Legislation......Page 344
7.6.1 The Division of External Competence......Page 345
7.6.2 EC Participation in Global Decision-Making......Page 346
7.6.3 EC Participation in the 1972 Oslo Convention and OSPAR......Page 347
7.6.4 EC Participation in the 1992 Helsinki Convention......Page 349
7.6.5 EC Participation in the BARCON......Page 350
7.7 Final Observations......Page 351
8.1 Introduction......Page 354
8.1.1 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)......Page 355
8.2.1 Establishment of MPAs under the LOSC......Page 357
8.2.2 Management of MPAs under the LOSC......Page 359
8.3.1 Chapter 17 of Agenda 21......Page 362
8.3.2 The WSSD Plan of Implementation and its Follow-Up in the UN......Page 363
8.4.1 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)......Page 364
8.4.2 Other MEAs Providing a Legal Basis for the Designation and Management of MPAS......Page 369
8.5.1 OSPAR\'s Annex V and the OSPAR Network of MPAs......Page 372
8.5.2 The 1992 Helsinki Convention......Page 376
8.5.3 Joint HELCOM/OSPAR Network of MPAs......Page 379
8.5.4 The 1995 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (SPA Protocol)......Page 380
8.5.5 Other Regional MEAs Providing a Legal Basis for the Establishment and Management of MPAs......Page 384
8.6.1 Special Areas under Articles 211(6) and 234 of the LOSC......Page 387
8.6.2 Special Areas under MARPOL 73/78......Page 390
8.6.3 Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) and the adoption of Associated Protective Measures (APMs)......Page 391
8.7 Weaknesses of the Existing International Regime......Page 397
8.8.1 The EC\'s Objective to Establish a Coherent Network of MPAs......Page 398
8.8.2 The EC Legal Framework for the Establishment and Management of MPAs......Page 401
8.8.3.1 The Natura 2000 Network......Page 403
8.8.3.2 Implementing Natura 2000 in the Marine Environment......Page 406
8.8.3.3 The Management of Natura 2000 Marine Sites......Page 409
8.8.3.4 Natura 2000 and the EC\'s Common Fishery Policy (CFP)......Page 410
8.8.4.1 The Division of External Competences......Page 413
8.8.4.2 EC Participation in the UN Discussions on MPAs......Page 414
8.8.4.3 EC Participation in the CBD and other MEAs......Page 417
8.8.4.4 EC Participation in the IMO\'s Work on PSSAs......Page 422
8.8.4.5 EC Participation in the Regional Work on MPAs......Page 424
8.9 Final Observations......Page 428
9.2 Implementing the International Regime for the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment......Page 432
9.3.1 A Multilateral Approach to Ocean Preservation......Page 434
9.3.2 The Sector-by-Sector Approach......Page 435
9.3.3 Towards a Comprehensive Ocean Policy?......Page 436
9.3.4 EC Participation in the LOSC, Marine-related MEAs and Regional Seas Conventions......Page 437
9.4 In What Manner Does the Existence of a Division of Competences between the EC and the Member States Influence the Implementation of the Marine Environmental Provisions of the LOSC and Related Agreements?......Page 439
9.5 How Does Community Coordination Work?......Page 442
9.6 Are the Approaches and Measures Adopted by the EC to Implement its International Ocean Obligations in Conformity with the LOSC?......Page 445
9.7 EC Contribution Towards the Effective Implementation of the International Ocean Regime......Page 448
I Declaration of the European Community on Signature of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982......Page 452
II Declaration Concerning the Competence of the European Community with regard to Matters Governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 and the Agreement of 28 July 1994 relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the Convention......Page 456
Bibliography......Page 462
Table of Cases......Page 478
Table of Instruments......Page 482
Index......Page 492