The Engineering Handbook

THE ENGINEERING HANDBOOK SECOND EDITION......Page 1
Preface......Page 5
Editor-in-Chief......Page 7
Contributors......Page 8
Contents......Page 17
Section I Statics......Page 32
Concurrent Force Systems......Page 33
Moment of a Force......Page 34
Couple......Page 35
Resultants of a Force and Couple System......Page 36
Distributed Loadings......Page 37
Free-Body Diagram......Page 38
Friction......Page 39
Internal Loadings......Page 40
Numerical Applications......Page 41
Further Information......Page 46
2.1 Centroid of a Plane Area......Page 47
2.2 Centroid of a Volume......Page 49
2.3 Surface Forces......Page 50
2.5 Calculation of Surface Area and Volume of a Body with Rotational Symmetry......Page 51
2.6 Determination of Centroids......Page 52
Further Information......Page 58
3.1 Area Moments of Inertia......Page 59
Defining Relations......Page 60
Radius of Gyration......Page 61
Parallel-Axis Theorem......Page 62
Composite Areas......Page 63
Defining Relations......Page 65
Defining Terms......Page 67
Further Information......Page 71
Section II Mechanics of Materials......Page 72
4.1 Types of Supports......Page 73
4.3 Static Determinacy and Indeterminacy......Page 76
4.4 Computation of Reactions......Page 79
Defining Terms......Page 81
Further Information......Page 82
5.1 Longitudinal Strains in Beams......Page 83
5.2 Normal Stresses in Beams Linearly Elastic Materials......Page 85
References......Page 89
Further Information......Page 90
6.1 Shear Stresses in Rectangular Beams......Page 91
6.2 Shear Stresses in Circular Beams......Page 94
6.3 Shear Stresses in the Webs of Beams with Flanges......Page 95
Further Information......Page 98
7.2 Shear and Moment Diagrams......Page 99
7.3 Shear and Moment Equations......Page 101
Defining Terms......Page 104
Further Information......Page 105
Buckling of Long Straight Columns......Page 106
Effective Lengths......Page 108
8.2 Examples......Page 109
Further Information......Page 113
9.1 Design Criteria......Page 114
Allowable Stress......Page 115
9.3 Opening Reinforcement......Page 116
Further Information......Page 117
Axial Stress......Page 121
Relative Displacement of Cross-Sections......Page 122
Nonuniform Bars......Page 123
Statically Indeterminate Bars......Page 124
Power Transmission......Page 126
Kinematics of Circular Shafts......Page 127
Elastic Twisting of Circular Shafts......Page 128
Nonuniform Shaft......Page 129
Statically Indeterminate Circular Shafts......Page 130
Defining Terms......Page 131
Further Information......Page 132
11.2 Fundamental Concepts......Page 133
The Energy Criterion......Page 134
The Stress Intensity Approach......Page 135
Effect of Material Properties on Fracture......Page 136
Defining Terms......Page 137
Further Information......Page 138
III Dynamics and Vibrations......Page 139
12.1 Dynamics of Particles......Page 140
Natural Path Coordinates......Page 141
Kinematics of Relative Motion......Page 142
12.2 NewtonÌs Second Law......Page 144
12.3 Moment of Momentum Relations......Page 145
12.5 WorkÒEnergy Integral of NewtonÌs Second Law......Page 146
The WorkÒEnergy Relation for a Conservative Force......Page 148
12.6 Conclusion......Page 149
Further Information......Page 150
13.1 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies......Page 151
Translation......Page 152
Rotation......Page 153
General Plane Motion: Euler Theorem......Page 154
Absolute and Relative Acceleration in Plane Motion......Page 155
Space Motion......Page 156
Forces and Acceleration......Page 159
Work and Energy......Page 160
Defining Terms......Page 162
Further Information......Page 163
14.1 Basic Principles......Page 164
Equation of Motion and Fundamental Frequency......Page 165
Linear Damping......Page 166
14.3 Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems......Page 168
14.4 Continuous Systems Infinite DOF......Page 169
Defining Terms......Page 172
References......Page 173
Further Information......Page 174
15.1 Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems......Page 175
15.2 Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems......Page 178
Defining Terms......Page 180
Further Information......Page 181
16.1 Procedure of Analysis......Page 182
Member under Axial Displacement......Page 184
Member under Bending along Its Major Moment of Inertia Axes......Page 185
16.5 Free Vibration of Frames......Page 186
16.7 Practical Applications......Page 187
Single Beams......Page 188
16.9 Linear Structures with Additional Effects......Page 189
Single Beams......Page 192
Offshore Structures......Page 193
References......Page 194
Further Information......Page 195
Applications of Structural and Dynamic Principles......Page 198
17.1 Base Configuration Loaded Applications......Page 201
17.2 Structural Configuration Loaded Applications......Page 209
17.3 Additional Information......Page 212
Modal Solution......Page 214
Integration of Uncoupled Equations......Page 215
References......Page 216
18.1 Models for Numerical Simulation......Page 218
18.2 Numerical Integration......Page 219
18.3 Vibration Response by Computer Simulation......Page 221
18.5 Computing Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes......Page 222
18.6 Nomograph Fundamentals......Page 228
Defining Terms......Page 229
Further Information......Page 230
Vibration Test Machines......Page 231
Shock Test Machines......Page 233
Shock Test Machine Performance Considerations......Page 234
Transducers......Page 235
Transducer Performance Considerations......Page 236
19.3 Digital Instrumentation and Computer Control......Page 237
Defining Terms......Page 239
Further Information......Page 240
Section IVKinematics and Mechanisms......Page 241
20.2 Spatial Linkages......Page 242
20.3 Displacement Analysis......Page 243
20.6 Classification of Cams and Followers......Page 245
20.7 Displacement Diagrams......Page 247
References......Page 248
Further Information......Page 249
21.1 History of Tribology and its Significance to Industry......Page 250
21.2 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology......Page 252
Definition of Friction......Page 253
Theories of Friction......Page 255
Measurements of Friction......Page 256
21.4 Wear......Page 257
Adhesive Wear......Page 259
Fatigue Wear......Page 261
Corrosive Wear......Page 262
Fluid Film Lubrication......Page 263
Defining Terms......Page 266
References......Page 267
Further Information......Page 268
22.1 Threaded Fasteners......Page 269
22.2 Clutches and Brakes......Page 274
Rim-Type Clutches and Brakes......Page 275
Axial-Type Clutches and Brakes......Page 276
Cone Clutches and Brakes......Page 277
Defining Terms......Page 278
Further Information......Page 279
Dedication......Page 280
23.1 Role of the Journal Bearings in the Internal Combustion Engine......Page 281
23.2 Construction of Modern Journal Bearings......Page 282
23.4 The Bearing Materials......Page 283
Load-Carrying Ability......Page 284
Housing......Page 287
Other Factors Affecting Bearing Assembly......Page 288
23.7 The Design Aspects of Journal Bearings......Page 289
23.8 Derivations of the Reynolds and Harrison Equations for Oil Film Pressure......Page 290
Defining Terms......Page 292
Further Information......Page 293
Fluid Sealing in Machines, Mechanical Devices, and Apparatus......Page 294
Gaskets......Page 295
Chemical Compound or Liquid Sealants as Gaskets......Page 296
24.3 Dynamic Seals......Page 297
Rotating or Oscillating Fixed-Clearance Seals......Page 298
Rotating Surface-Guided Seals - Cylindrical Surface......Page 299
Rotating Surface-Guided Seals - Annular Surface......Page 300
Reciprocating Surface-Guided Seals......Page 301
24.4 Gasket Practice......Page 302
24.6 Mechanical Face Seal Practice......Page 303
Further Information......Page 307
Section V Structures......Page 308
25.1 Dead Loads......Page 310
Occupancy Loads......Page 311
25.4 Snow Loads......Page 312
Further Information......Page 313
Wind Effects......Page 314
26.1 Wind Climate......Page 315
26.3 Mean Wind Speed Profile......Page 316
26.4 Turbulence......Page 317
26.5 Pressure Coefficients and Load Factors......Page 318
Further Information......Page 319
27.1 Earthquakes: Causes and Faulting......Page 320
Causes of Earthquakes and Faulting......Page 321
Measurement of Earthquakes......Page 322
Strong Motion Attenuation and Duration......Page 323
Seismic Hazard and Design Earthquake......Page 324
Liquefaction and Liquefaction-Related Permanent Ground Displacement......Page 328
Buildings......Page 329
Nonbuilding......Page 332
Defining Terms......Page 333
Further Reading......Page 334
28.1 Introduction......Page 335
28.2 Cables......Page 336
28.4 Trusses......Page 338
28.5 Beams and Frames......Page 341
28.7 Influence Lines and Influence Surfaces......Page 344
28.8 Structural Stability......Page 346
28.9 Advanced Analysis......Page 348
Defining Terms......Page 349
Further Information......Page 350
Structural Steel......Page 352
Tension Members......Page 353
Compression Members......Page 355
Beams......Page 356
Bolts......Page 357
Welds......Page 358
Defining Terms......Page 359
References......Page 360
Further Information......Page 361
Admixtures in Concrete......Page 362
Properties of Hardened Concrete......Page 363
Singly Reinforced Beam Design......Page 364
Columns......Page 367
Shear......Page 368
Torsion......Page 369
30.4 Prestressed Concrete......Page 370
30.5 Serviceability Checks......Page 372
Defining Terms......Page 373
Further Information......Page 374
31.1 Durability of Wood......Page 375
31.2 Wood Products......Page 376
31.3 Member Design......Page 377
31.5 Lateral Force Design......Page 380
Further Information......Page 381
Masonry Design......Page 382
32.2 Masonry Materials......Page 383
32.4 Concrete Masonry......Page 384
General......Page 385
Design of Unreinforced Masonry MSJC 2.2......Page 386
Modulus of Elasticity......Page 389
Behavior State 2 Û Working Stress Design MSJC 2.3, IBC 2107:......Page 390
Flexural Design......Page 391
Moment Capacity of a Section......Page 392
Interaction of Combined Load and Moment, P/M......Page 394
Columns......Page 395
Strength Design Û Behavior State 3......Page 396
References......Page 398
33.1 Procedure of Analysis......Page 400
33.2 Geometrical Behavior......Page 401
Successive Loading and Unloading......Page 403
33.4 Equations of Motion......Page 404
33.5 Linearization of the Moment and Force Displacement Relationships......Page 405
33.7 Practical Applications......Page 406
Further Information......Page 408
34.1 Total Scour......Page 409
34.3 General Scour......Page 410
34.4 Contraction Scour......Page 411
34.5 Local Scour at Bridge Piers......Page 413
Pier Scour Armoring Factor K......Page 414
34.6 Local Scour at Complex Piers......Page 415
Defining Terms......Page 416
References......Page 417
Further Information......Page 418
Section VI Fluid Mechanics......Page 419
35.1 Fundamentals of Incompressible Fluid Flow......Page 420
35.3 Basic Equations in Integral Form for Control Volumes......Page 421
35.4 Differential Analysis of Fluid Motion......Page 423
35.5 Incompressible Inviscid Flow......Page 425
35.6 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude......Page 426
35.7 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow......Page 427
References......Page 429
Further Information......Page 430
36.1 Introduction......Page 431
36.3 Ideal Gas Relations......Page 432
36.5 Stagnation State and Properties......Page 434
36.6 Stagnation Property Relations......Page 435
36.7 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes......Page 437
36.8 Normal and Oblique Shock Waves......Page 440
36.9 Rayleigh Flow......Page 443
36.10 Fanno Flow......Page 445
References......Page 446
37.1 Kinematics, Flow Classification, and Material Functions......Page 448
37.2 Fluids......Page 451
37.3 Constitutive Equations......Page 453
Dependence of Viscosity on Temperature......Page 457
Dependence of Viscosity on Molecular Weight and Concentration......Page 458
Shear Viscosity......Page 459
References......Page 465
Further Information......Page 466
38.1 Nomenclature......Page 467
38.2 Airfoil Shapes......Page 469
38.3 Lift and Drag Characteristics for Airfoils......Page 470
38.4 Lift and Drag of Wings......Page 471
Defining Terms......Page 472
Further Information......Page 473
39.1 Theoretical Boundary Layers......Page 474
39.3 Friction in Pipes......Page 475
39.4 Noncircular Channel......Page 477
39.5 Example Solutions......Page 478
References......Page 482
Valve Types......Page 483
Valve Coefficients......Page 486
Operating Torque......Page 488
Cavitation......Page 489
40.2 Air Valves......Page 492
Check Valve Types......Page 494
Check Valve Selection......Page 495
References......Page 496
41.1 Introduction......Page 497
Centrifugal and Other Velocity-Head Pumps......Page 498
Selecting a Pump Based upon Flow Considerations......Page 500
41.3 Vacuum Pumps......Page 504
41.4 Fans......Page 506
References......Page 507
42.1 Notation......Page 509
Mass Conservation......Page 510
Momentum Conservation......Page 511
Energy Conservation......Page 512
42.3 Closure......Page 513
42.4 Two-Phase Instabilities......Page 516
42.5 Conclusion......Page 517
Nomenclature......Page 519
Further Information......Page 520
Basic Mixing Principles for Various Types of Fluid Mixing Applications......Page 521
GasÒLiquid Dispersion......Page 524
Solids Suspension and Dispersion......Page 525
LiquidÒLiquid Emulsions......Page 526
Heat Transfer......Page 527
43.3 Computational Fluid Dynamics......Page 528
Proceedings......Page 530
44.1 Fundamental Principles......Page 532
Differential Pressure Meters......Page 536
Thermal Anemometers......Page 538
Laser Doppler Anemometers......Page 542
Defining Terms......Page 543
Further Information......Page 544
Fluid Measurements......Page 545
Section VII Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer......Page 547
45.1 System Analysis......Page 549
45.2 Control Volume Analysis......Page 551
The Steady-State Model......Page 552
The Transient Model......Page 553
Further Information......Page 554
Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy......Page 555
46.1 Reversibility......Page 557
46.2 Entropy......Page 560
46.3 The Second Law for Bulk Flow......Page 561
Direction and Feasibility of Processes......Page 562
Process Efficiency......Page 564
Exergy Analysis......Page 566
References......Page 570
Further Information......Page 571
47.1 Fundamentals......Page 572
Real Liquid Mixtures Û Excess Property Description......Page 573
Real Mixtures Û Equation of State Description......Page 576
47.2 Applications......Page 578
Further Information......Page 579
The Interface......Page 580
The Gibbs Phase Rule......Page 581
Young and Laplace Equation......Page 582
The Kelvin Equation......Page 583
The Gibbs Adsorption Equation......Page 584
Adhesion and Cohesion......Page 585
Defining Terms......Page 586
Further Information......Page 587
49.1 Pure-Component Phase Equilibrium......Page 588
The ClausiusÒClapeyron Equation......Page 589
Determination of Activity Coefficients......Page 590
Azeotropes......Page 591
Solid-Liquid Equilibrium SLE......Page 592
References......Page 593
Further Information......Page 594
Thermodynamic Cycles......Page 595
50.1 Power Cycles......Page 596
50.2 Refrigeration Cycles......Page 599
Further Information......Page 601
51.1 Conduction......Page 602
FourierÌs Law of Heat Conduction......Page 603
The Energy Equation......Page 604
Limits of FourierÌs Law......Page 605
51.2 Convection......Page 606
Heat Transfer Coefficient......Page 607
Reynolds Number......Page 608
Forced Convection over Bodies External Flows......Page 609
Forced Convection in Ducts Internal Flows......Page 610
Free Convection......Page 611
51.3 Radiation......Page 612
Basic Quantities of Radiation......Page 613
Intensity of Radiation......Page 614
Radiative Properties of Real Nonblack Surfaces......Page 615
Reflectivity......Page 616
Shape Factors......Page 617
Radiative Transfer Equation......Page 618
Condensation......Page 619
Pool Boiling......Page 621
Further Information......Page 622
Heat Exchangers......Page 623
Heat Transfer Regimes......Page 624
General Features......Page 625
Major Components......Page 626
Characteristics......Page 627
Basic Design......Page 628
Thermal-Hydraulic Design......Page 629
52.5 Microchannel Heat Exchangers......Page 632
Defining Terms......Page 635
Further Information......Page 636
Combustion Chemistry......Page 638
Combustion Properties......Page 640
Pollution......Page 643
53.3 Combustion System Components......Page 645
Burners......Page 646
Heat Load......Page 649
Combustors......Page 650
Heat Recovery......Page 651
Pollution Control Strategies......Page 652
Metals Production......Page 654
Minerals Production......Page 655
Chemicals Production......Page 656
Defining Terms......Page 657
References......Page 658
54.2 Comfort......Page 660
54.3 The Air Conditioning Process......Page 661
Vapor Compression Cycle......Page 662
Refrigerants......Page 664
References......Page 665
55.1 Desiccant Cooling......Page 666
55.2 Heat Pumps......Page 667
Physical Properties of Cryogenic Liquids......Page 669
Stirling Refrigerator Cryocooler......Page 670
Gifford - McMahon Refrigerator Cryocooler......Page 671
Pulse Tube Refrigerator Cryocooler......Page 672
Dilution Refrigerator Cryocooler......Page 673
References......Page 674
Further Information......Page 675
56.1 Introduction......Page 676
56.2 The Fluids......Page 677
56.4 Heat Transfer......Page 678
56.5 Instrumentation and Equipment......Page 681
References......Page 682
Further Information......Page 683
57.1 Heat Pipe Container, Working Fluid, and Wick Structures......Page 684
57.2 Heat Transfer Limitations......Page 686
57.4 Application of Heat Pipes......Page 688
Further Information......Page 690
Section VIII Separation Processes......Page 691
Distillation......Page 692
58.1 Separation Specification......Page 693
58.3 Index of Separation Difficulty......Page 694
58.4 Required Actual Stages......Page 695
58.5 Column Dimensions......Page 696
Defining Terms......Page 697
Further Information......Page 698
59.1 Basic Property Data......Page 699
59.2 Design Methodology Û Absorption......Page 701
59.3 Design Methodology Û Stripping......Page 702
59.4 Stage Efficiency......Page 703
Further Information......Page 704
Extraction......Page 705
60.1 Representative Extraction Processes......Page 706
60.2 Solvent Characteristics and Solvent Screening......Page 709
60.3 Extraction Equilibria......Page 710
60.4 Extraction Staging and Equipment......Page 712
Defining Terms......Page 713
Further Information......Page 714
61.1 Adsorbent Materials......Page 716
61.2 Adsorption Equilibria......Page 717
61.4 Thermodynamic Selectivity of Adsorption......Page 720
61.5 Adsorption Kinetics......Page 722
61.6 Adsorption Column Dynamics......Page 724
61.7 Adsorptive Separation Processes and Design......Page 726
Defining Terms......Page 727
References......Page 728
Further Information......Page 729
Crystallization and Evaporation......Page 730
62.3 Solubility Relations......Page 731
62.4 Product Characteristics......Page 732
62.6 Kinds of Crystallization Processes......Page 733
62.8 Mathematical Models of Continuous Crystallization......Page 734
62.9 Equipment Designs......Page 736
62.10 Evaporation......Page 738
Defining Terms......Page 743
References......Page 744
63.1 Dialysis......Page 745
63.2 Reverse Osmosis......Page 750
63.3 Gas and Vapor Separations......Page 751
63.4 Vapor-Liquid Separations......Page 754
63.5 Practical Implementation of Membrane Systems......Page 755
63.6 Practical Membrane Challenges......Page 756
Mixed Matrix Approach......Page 757
References......Page 758
Screening......Page 760
Centrifugation......Page 761
Hydrocycloning......Page 763
Flotation......Page 764
64.2 Equipment......Page 765
64.3 Fundamental Concept......Page 766
Cake Filtration......Page 767
64.5 Economics......Page 769
References......Page 770
Further Information......Page 771
Other Separation Processes......Page 772
65.2 Diffusional Separations......Page 773
65.5 Electrodialysis......Page 774
References......Page 775
Further Information......Page 776
Section IX Fuels and Energy Conversion......Page 777
66.1 Coal......Page 779
Agglomerating Character......Page 781
Crude Oil Refining......Page 782
Flash Point......Page 783
66.4 Important Products of Crude Oil Refining......Page 784
References......Page 785
Further Information......Page 786
Trough Systems......Page 787
Power Towers......Page 788
DishÒStirling Systems......Page 789
67.2 Photovoltaic Power Systems......Page 790
Stand-Alone PV Systems......Page 791
Defining Terms......Page 792
References......Page 793
Internal Combustion Engines......Page 795
68.2 Engine Classifications......Page 796
Idealized and Actual Cycles......Page 797
Combustion, Fuels, and Emissions......Page 798
Control......Page 800
Idealized and Actual Cycles......Page 801
Combustion, Fuels, and Emissions......Page 802
Control......Page 803
Four-Stroke Intake and Exhaust......Page 804
Two-Stroke Scavenging......Page 805
Valve Gear......Page 806
Cooling......Page 807
Defining Terms......Page 808
Further Information......Page 809
69.1 Gas Turbine Usage......Page 810
69.2 Gas Turbine Cycles......Page 813
Compressors and Turbines......Page 816
Defining Terms......Page 817
Further Information......Page 818
Terrestrial Nuclear Power......Page 819
Space Nuclear Power......Page 820
Fission......Page 821
Reactor Kinetics......Page 822
Reactor Thermal Hydraulics......Page 824
Radiation Protection......Page 825
Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 826
Reactor Types......Page 827
Radioactive Waste Management......Page 828
Next-Generation Commercial Systems......Page 829
Defining Terms......Page 830
Further Information......Page 831
Power Plants......Page 832
71.2 The Turbine......Page 833
71.3 The Condenser......Page 834
Wet Cooling Towers......Page 835
Dry and Wet-Dry Cooling Towers......Page 836
The Fuel System......Page 837
The Boiler......Page 838
Air Preheater......Page 839
Defining Terms......Page 840
Further Information......Page 841
72.1 Power in the Wind......Page 843
72.2 Types of Wind Turbines......Page 845
72.3 Power from a Wind Turbine: Axial Momentum Theory......Page 847
72.4 Power from a Wind Turbine: Blade Element Momentum  BEM Theory......Page 849
72.5 Electromechanical Considerations......Page 852
72.6 Power Regulation and Control......Page 854
72.8 Design and Certification of Wind Turbines......Page 855
72.9 Dynamic and Structural Analysis of Wind Turbines......Page 856
72.10 Applications and Development of Wind Power......Page 857
Further Information......Page 860
Turbine Classification......Page 861
Impulse Turbines......Page 862
Reaction Turbines......Page 863
Power Available, Efficiency......Page 864
Similitude and Scaling Formulas......Page 865
Impulse Turbines......Page 867
Reaction Turbines......Page 868
Performance Comparison......Page 869
Speed Regulation......Page 870
Cavitation and Turbine Setting......Page 871
Model Tests......Page 872
Numerical Simulation1......Page 873
Field Tests......Page 875
Further Information......Page 877
74.1 Design of Steam Turbines [1-13]......Page 879
Steam Turbine Developments......Page 881
74.2 Working Principles [1-6]......Page 882
74.3 Thermodynamics and Efficiency [1-12]......Page 883
Stop and Control Valves......Page 888
74.5 Electric Generators [21-25]......Page 889
Generator Cooling......Page 890
Lube Oil System......Page 891
74.7 Steam Turbine Problems [1-7, 11, 15-19]......Page 892
74.8 Steam Chemistry and Turbine Corrosion [11, 12, 15 - 19]......Page 893
Defining Terms......Page 894
References......Page 895
Further Information......Page 896
75.1 Introduction......Page 897
75.2 Electricity Generation in the U.S.......Page 898
75.3 Basics of Power Generation Cycles......Page 900
75.4 History of Cogeneration......Page 903
Types of Cogeneration Systems......Page 904
Conventional Cogeneration Systems......Page 906
Packaged Cogeneration Systems......Page 908
Distributed Generation Technologies......Page 909
Efficiency of Cogeneration Systems......Page 911
Feasibility Analysis Procedure......Page 912
Financing Options......Page 914
75.7 Case Study: Cogeneration System at the University of Colorado......Page 915
References......Page 918
Electric Machines......Page 920
DC Generator......Page 921
DC Motor......Page 922
Types of DC Machines......Page 923
Sinusoidal Stator Windings......Page 924
Resultant Mmf in a Balanced System......Page 925
and Induced Stator Voltage......Page 926
Types of Induction Machines......Page 927
Per-phase Equivalent Circuit......Page 928
Induction Generators......Page 929
Modeling......Page 930
Power and Electromagnetic Torque......Page 931
76.3 Synchronous Machines......Page 932
76.4 Permanent Magnet Machines......Page 933
PM Synchronous Motors......Page 934
PM Brushless DC Motors......Page 936
76.5 Switched Reluctance Machines......Page 937
Basic Principle of Operation......Page 938
Torque Production......Page 939
76.6 Synchronous Reluctance Machine......Page 941
Single-Phase Induction Machines......Page 943
76.8 Transverse Flux Machines......Page 944
References......Page 946
Operating Principle......Page 947
Fuel Cell Types......Page 948
Thermodynamics and Efficiency of Fuel Cells......Page 950
Kinetics of Fuel Cell Reactions......Page 951
Hydrogen Storage......Page 953
Fuel Reforming......Page 954
Other System Components......Page 959
Applications......Page 961
Choice of Fuel......Page 963
Defining Terms......Page 964
Further Reading......Page 966
Section X Kinetics and Reaction Engineering......Page 967
Basic Terms and Equations......Page 968
Complex or Multiple Reactions......Page 969
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalytic Reactions......Page 971
Data Acquisition......Page 972
Development of Rate Equation......Page 973
References......Page 976
Further Information......Page 977
Mole Balances......Page 978
Rate Laws......Page 979
Stoichiometry......Page 982
79.2 Pressure Drop in Reactors......Page 987
79.3 Multiple Reactions......Page 989
79.4 Heat Effects......Page 991
Defining Terms......Page 994
Further Information......Page 995
The Scaleup of Chemical Reaction Systems from Laboratory to Plant......Page 996
Kinetics of a Simple Hypothetical System of Reactions......Page 997
Combined Kinetics and Reactor Models: The General Continuity Equation......Page 998
Step 1: Select the Type of Reactor for the Commercial Process......Page 1001
Step 2: Design the Laboratory to Generate Reaction Kinetics Data......Page 1004
Step 5: Develop the Economically Optimum Reactor Design......Page 1006
Step 6: Validate the Design in a Pilot Plant Reactor......Page 1007
Defining Terms......Page 1008
Further Information......Page 1009
Section XI Geotechnical......Page 1010
81.2 Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 1011
81.4 Consolidation......Page 1013
Time Rate of Consolidation......Page 1014
81.5 Shear Strength......Page 1015
Further Information......Page 1017
Section XII Transportation......Page 1018
Identify Goals and Objectives......Page 1019
Use Analysis Tools to Identify System Deficiencies or Opportunities......Page 1020
Implement Plan......Page 1021
82.2 Transportation Modeling......Page 1022
References......Page 1025
Further Information......Page 1026
Design of Transportation Facilities......Page 1027
Develop Strategy for Interagency Coordination and Public Involvement......Page 1028
Vehicle or User Performance Factors......Page 1029
Capacity and Level of Service......Page 1030
83.3 Intermodal Transportation Terminals or Transfer Facilities......Page 1032
83.4 Advanced Technology Projects......Page 1033
Defining Terms......Page 1035
Further Information......Page 1036
84.1 Fundamental Equations......Page 1037
84.2 Flow, Speed, and Density Relationships......Page 1038
84.4 Highway Capacity......Page 1039
84.6 Traffic Control Devices......Page 1040
84.8 Environmental Impacts......Page 1041
Defining Terms......Page 1042
Further Information......Page 1043
Transportation Systems......Page 1044
85.2 Evaluation Measures......Page 1045
85.3 Air Transportation......Page 1047
85.4 Railroad Transportation......Page 1048
85.5 Highway Transportation......Page 1050
85.6 Water Transportation......Page 1051
85.7 Public Transportation......Page 1052
References......Page 1053
Further Information......Page 1054
Intelligent Transportation Systems*......Page 1055
Operations......Page 1056
Productivity......Page 1057
Advanced Traffic Management Systems......Page 1058
Advanced Vehicle Control Systems......Page 1059
Advanced Public Transportation Systems......Page 1060
Advanced Rural Transportation Systems......Page 1061
86.4 ITS Restructuring and Progress......Page 1062
How It Was Done......Page 1064
Freeway, Incident, and Emergency Management, and Electronic Toll Collection......Page 1065
Traveler Information Systems......Page 1066
Crosscutting Technical and Programmatic Issues......Page 1067
Conclusions......Page 1068
86.6 Benefits of ITS......Page 1072
Taxonomy and Measures of Effectiveness......Page 1073
86.7 Five-Year Plan [38]......Page 1076
Transition from Research to Deployment......Page 1077
Intelligent Infrastructure and Intelligent Vehicles......Page 1079
Program Area Goals, Key Activities, Milestones......Page 1080
Additional Areas Covered in the Plan......Page 1086
The Goals......Page 1089
86.9 Case Study: Incident Management......Page 1090
Incident Management......Page 1091
Formulation of Incident Detection Problem......Page 1093
Need for All Incident Management Stages to Perform......Page 1095
References......Page 1101
Further Information......Page 1103
Section XIIICoastal and Ocean Engineering......Page 1115
87.1 Wave Phenomena......Page 1116
Cnoidal Shallow Water, Long Waves......Page 1117
87.3 Beach Profile......Page 1119
87.4 Longshore Sediment Transport......Page 1121
General Energy Flux Equation......Page 1122
Seawalls......Page 1123
Breakwaters......Page 1126
87.6 Navigational Channels......Page 1127
87.8 Oil Spills......Page 1128
87.9 Offshore Structures......Page 1131
Defining Terms......Page 1133
References......Page 1134
Further Information......Page 1135
Section XIV Environmental System and Management......Page 1137
Chemical Contamination......Page 1138
88.2 Drinking Water Regulations......Page 1139
Treatment Techniques......Page 1140
88.3 Water Treatment Processes......Page 1141
Solution Chemistry......Page 1142
Filtration......Page 1143
Defining Terms......Page 1145
Further Information......Page 1146
89.1 Control of Particulate Matter......Page 1147
Electrostatic Precipitators......Page 1148
Fabric Filtration......Page 1149
Absorption Processes......Page 1150
Adsorption......Page 1154
Incineration Processes......Page 1156
Further Information......Page 1158
90.1 Wastewater Sources, Classification, and Characteristics......Page 1159
Wastewater Classification......Page 1160
90.2 Wastewater Terminology and Definitions......Page 1161
90.3 Wastewater Treatment......Page 1162
90.4 Advanced Wastewater Treatment......Page 1163
90.5 Solids Sludge/Biosolids......Page 1164
90.6 Future of Wastewater Treatment......Page 1166
Multiple-Barrier Concept......Page 1167
Management Problems Facing Wastewater Operations......Page 1168
References......Page 1174
91.1 Regulations......Page 1175
91.2 Characteristics......Page 1176
91.4 Collection......Page 1177
91.6 Processing and Resource Recovery Recycling......Page 1178
Defining Terms......Page 1180
Further Information......Page 1181
Hazardous Waste Management......Page 1182
CERCLA......Page 1183
HSWA......Page 1184
Nonlisted Wastes......Page 1185
Hazardous Waste Generators......Page 1187
Storage of Hazardous Waste......Page 1188
Transportation of Hazardous Waste......Page 1189
Selecting a Suitable Waste Treatment Facility......Page 1190
92.5 Infectious Waste Management......Page 1193
Health Concerns with Radiation Exposure......Page 1196
Management of LLW......Page 1197
92.8 Corrective Action......Page 1198
Life Cycle Design......Page 1199
92.11 Computer Usage in Hazardous Waste Management......Page 1200
Further Information......Page 1201
93.1 Regulations......Page 1203
93.3 Soil Vapor Extraction......Page 1204
93.6 Thermal Desorption......Page 1205
93.8 Landfilling and Containment......Page 1206
93.11 Chemical Extraction......Page 1207
93.14 Bioremediation......Page 1208
93.16 Phytoremediation......Page 1209
Defining Terms......Page 1210
References......Page 1213
94.1 Storm Water Design and Management Overview......Page 1214
94.2 Design Procedures......Page 1215
94.3 Routing and Flood Wave Propagation......Page 1222
94.4 Hydraulic Impact Determination and Mitigation......Page 1224
Effects of Urban Runoff......Page 1227
Urban Runoff Transport......Page 1228
References......Page 1233
Section XV Water Resources Engineering......Page 1235
95.2 Equation of Continuity......Page 1236
Components of Pressure......Page 1237
95.5 Pressure Loss......Page 1238
Compound Pipe Systems......Page 1239
Minor Head Loss......Page 1240
95.6 Open Channel Flow......Page 1242
Positive Displacement Meter......Page 1244
95.8 Centrifugal Pump......Page 1245
Further Information......Page 1247
96.1 Classification of Hydrology......Page 1248
Surface Flow......Page 1249
Unsaturated Flow......Page 1252
Solute Transport......Page 1253
96.4 Approaches to Hydrologic Problems......Page 1254
Precipitation......Page 1255
Evaporation and Transpiration......Page 1256
Infiltration and Soil Moisture......Page 1257
Surface Runoff......Page 1258
Sediment Transport and Yield......Page 1259
Microbial Transport......Page 1260
Phenomenological Analyses......Page 1261
References......Page 1262
Further Information......Page 1265
97.1 Fluvial Geomorphology......Page 1266
97.3 Beginning of Motion......Page 1267
97.6 Sediment Transport......Page 1268
97.7 Reservoir Sedimentation......Page 1270
Defining Terms......Page 1272
Further Information......Page 1274
Section XVI Linear Systems and Models......Page 1275
98.1 Transfer Functions......Page 1277
98.2 The Laplace Transformation......Page 1278
98.3 Transform Properties......Page 1279
98.4 Transformation and Solution of a System Equation......Page 1280
Defining Terms......Page 1282
Further Information......Page 1283
99.1 Introduction......Page 1284
The Multiplier......Page 1285
The Series Representation......Page 1286
99.4 The Controllable Canonical Form CCF Block Diagrams with Basic Blocks......Page 1287
99.5 The Observable Canonical Form OCF Block Diagrams with Basic Blocks......Page 1289
Distinct Roots Case......Page 1290
Repeated Roots Case......Page 1291
Distinct Roots Case......Page 1292
Repeated Roots Case......Page 1293
Distinct Real Roots Case......Page 1294
Using the Reduction Rules......Page 1295
From Block Diagrams with Basic Block Components to Transfer Functions......Page 1296
From Block Diagrams with Interconnected Subsystems to Transfer Functions......Page 1299
100.2 Signal Flow Graphs for Feedback Systems......Page 1303
100.3 Reduction of Signal Flow Graphs......Page 1305
100.4 Realization of Transfer Functions......Page 1307
100.5 Boundary Conditions and Signal Flow Graphs......Page 1308
References......Page 1309
101.1 State-Space Models......Page 1310
101.2 Linearization......Page 1312
State-Space Systems......Page 1313
Controllability and Observability......Page 1314
Diagonalization......Page 1315
State Equations from the Transfer Matrix......Page 1318
Further Information......Page 1321
Frequency Response......Page 1322
Linear Plots......Page 1324
Bode Diagrams......Page 1326
Defining Terms......Page 1328
References......Page 1333
Continuous-Time Convolution......Page 1334
Discrete-Time Convolution......Page 1336
Filtering......Page 1337
Correlation or Matched Filtering......Page 1338
103.4 Two-Dimensional Convolution......Page 1339
Defining Terms......Page 1340
References......Page 1341
Further Information......Page 1342
104.1 Response Components......Page 1343
104.2 Internal Asymptotic and External BIBO Stability......Page 1344
104.3 Unstable and Marginally Stable Responses......Page 1346
104.4 Structural Integrity and Design Implications......Page 1349
Further Information......Page 1350
105.1 The z Transform......Page 1351
105.2 Digital Systems and Discretized Data......Page 1353
The Discrete Fourier Transform......Page 1354
105.3 The Transfer Function......Page 1355
105.4 Digital Systems Described by Difference Equations  ARMAX Models......Page 1356
105.5 Prediction and Reconstruction......Page 1357
105.6 The Kalman Filter......Page 1359
Defining Terms......Page 1361
Further Information......Page 1362
Section XVII Circuits......Page 1363
106.1 Resistors......Page 1364
106.2 Capacitors......Page 1366
106.3 Inductors......Page 1370
Further Information......Page 1372
107.1 RL Circuits......Page 1373
107.2 RC Circuits......Page 1375
107.3 RLC Circuits......Page 1378
Case 3: Underdamped Circuit......Page 1379
RLC Circuit Û Frequency Response......Page 1380
Defining Terms......Page 1381
Further Information......Page 1382
Node Equations and Mesh Equations......Page 1383
108.1 Node Equations......Page 1385
108.2 Mesh Equations......Page 1387
Further Information......Page 1389
109.1 Sinusoidal Source......Page 1390
109.2 Phasor......Page 1391
Resistor......Page 1392
Inductor......Page 1393
Capacitor......Page 1394
Sinusoidal Responses......Page 1395
Further Information......Page 1398
Three-Phase Circuits......Page 1400
110.1 Relationships between Voltages and Currents......Page 1401
110.3 Power Relationship......Page 1403
110.4 Balanced Source and Balanced Load......Page 1404
110.5 Other Types of Interconnections......Page 1405
Defining Terms......Page 1406
References......Page 1407
111.1 Fundamentals......Page 1408
Simple RL and RC Filters......Page 1411
Simple RLC Filters......Page 1413
Compound Filters......Page 1415
Constant-k Filters......Page 1417
m-Derived Filters......Page 1418
Defining Terms......Page 1420
Further Information......Page 1421
112.1 Equipment......Page 1422
112.2 System Divisions and Types......Page 1424
112.3 Electrical Analysis, Planning, and Design......Page 1425
Phase Balancing......Page 1427
Fault Analysis......Page 1428
Reliability Analysis......Page 1431
Defining Terms......Page 1432
Further Information......Page 1433
Grounding, Shielding, and Filtering......Page 1434
Causes of EMI......Page 1435
Solutions to EMI Problems......Page 1437
Characteristics of Ground Conductors......Page 1439
Ground-Related EMI Coupling......Page 1440
Grounding Configurations......Page 1442
Radiated Electromagnetic Waves......Page 1444
Reflection Loss......Page 1446
Conductive Coatings......Page 1447
Aperture Leakages......Page 1448
Summary of Shielding Considerations......Page 1449
Shielded Isolation Transformers......Page 1450
113.5 Using Filtering Technologies to Improve Equipment Compatibility......Page 1457
Limitations of MIL-STD-220B......Page 1458
IEEE P1560: A Step Forward......Page 1460
References......Page 1461
Further Information......Page 1462
114.1 MaxwellÌs Equations......Page 1463
114.2 Constitutive Relations......Page 1464
114.3 Boundary Conditions......Page 1466
114.5 Vector and Scalar Potentials......Page 1467
114.6 Time-Harmonic Fields......Page 1469
114.7 Wave Equations......Page 1470
References......Page 1471
Section XVIII Electronics......Page 1472
115.1 The Ideal Op Amp......Page 1474
115.2 Feedback Circuit Analysis......Page 1477
115.3 Input and Output Impedances......Page 1478
115.4 Practical Limitations and Considerations......Page 1479
Further Information......Page 1480
Active RC Filters......Page 1481
Cascade of Sallen and Key Filters......Page 1482
Simulation of LC Ladders......Page 1483
116.3 Filter Specifications and Approximations......Page 1484
BesselÒThompson Filters......Page 1486
Chebyshev Filters......Page 1487
116.4 Filter Design......Page 1488
Low-Pass All-Pole Filter Design Example......Page 1490
Low-Pass Finite-Zero Filter Design Example......Page 1492
Defining Terms......Page 1493
References......Page 1496
Further Information......Page 1497
117.1 Semiconductors......Page 1499
117.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors......Page 1501
117.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistors......Page 1502
JFET as an Amplifier Û Small-Signal AC Voltage Gain......Page 1505
117.4 Metal-Oxide Silicon Field-Effect Transistors......Page 1506
MOSFET as an Amplifier Û Small-Signal AC Voltage Gain......Page 1507
MOSFETs for Digital Circuits......Page 1508
Defining Terms......Page 1509
References......Page 1510
Analog Integrated Circuits......Page 1512
118.1 Operational Amplifiers......Page 1513
118.3 Voltage Regulators......Page 1515
118.4 Power Amplifiers......Page 1516
118.8 Waveform Generators......Page 1517
118.10 Digital-to-Analog and Analog-to-Digital Converters......Page 1518
118.14 Recent Trends......Page 1519
References......Page 1520
119.1 Photoconductive Cells......Page 1521
119.2 Photodiodes......Page 1523
Current Responsivity......Page 1524
Photodiode Current versus Voltage Curves......Page 1525
119.3 Phototransistors......Page 1527
119.4 PIN Photodiode......Page 1529
119.5 Schottky Photodiode......Page 1532
119.6 Avalanche Photodiodes......Page 1533
119.8 Heterostructure Photodiode......Page 1534
119.9 Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 1537
Reflection......Page 1539
Edge-Emitting Double Heterostructure LED......Page 1542
Packaging of Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 1544
119.10 Semiconductor Diode Lasers......Page 1545
Edge-Emitting Double-Heterostructure Laser......Page 1547
Laser Beamwidth......Page 1548
Light Output versus Forward Current......Page 1550
Defining Terms......Page 1551
Further Information......Page 1552
120.1 Power Semiconductor Devices......Page 1553
Diodes......Page 1554
Thyristor and Triac......Page 1556
Power Transistors......Page 1559
Silicon Carbide and Gallium Nitride Devices......Page 1563
Hybrid Switching Devices......Page 1564
DCÒDC Converters......Page 1566
ACÒDC Converters......Page 1570
DCÒAC Converters......Page 1573
Direct ACÒAC Converters......Page 1576
Further Information......Page 1577
The Fundamentals of A/D Converters......Page 1578
The Fundamentals of D/A Converters......Page 1581
Defining Terms......Page 1582
References......Page 1583
Further Information......Page 1584
122.1 Introduction......Page 1585
122.2 General Electromagnetic Properties......Page 1586
122.3 Superconducting Electronics......Page 1590
122.4 Types of Superconductors......Page 1592
Further Information......Page 1594
123.1 Introduction......Page 1595
CPUs......Page 1596
Memory......Page 1598
123.4 Embedded System Architectures......Page 1599
Specifications......Page 1601
Design Flows......Page 1602
Platform-Based Design......Page 1603
Energy/Power Analysis and Optimization......Page 1604
References......Page 1605
Electronic Data Analysis Using PSPICE and MATLAB......Page 1607
Inductors......Page 1608
Independent Current Source......Page 1609
AC Analysis .AC......Page 1610
Initial Conditions .IC, UIC......Page 1611
The Colon Symbol......Page 1612
Graph Functions......Page 1613
M-files......Page 1614
Data Analysis Functions......Page 1615
Save, Load, and Textread Functions......Page 1616
Best-Fit Linear Model of a Diode......Page 1617
Op Amp Circuit with Series-Shunt Feedback Network......Page 1618
124.5 Conclusions......Page 1620
References......Page 1621
Electronic Packaging......Page 1622
125.1 IC Packaging......Page 1623
125.2 PCB Design......Page 1624
125.6 Leadless IC Packages......Page 1625
125.7 Area Arrays......Page 1626
125.8 Chip on Board......Page 1627
125.9 Flip Chip......Page 1629
125.11 High-Density Interconnects......Page 1630
References......Page 1631
Further Information......Page 1632
Microwave and RF Engineering......Page 1633
Wavelength Comparable to Component Dimensions......Page 1634
Guided Waves......Page 1635
Propagation and Attenuation in the Atmosphere......Page 1639
Material Properties......Page 1640
Communications......Page 1644
Sensors Radar......Page 1647
Small Signal......Page 1648
Large Signal......Page 1650
Noise......Page 1652
Pulsed I-V......Page 1654
Low Noise Amplifier......Page 1655
Power Amplifier......Page 1656
Filter......Page 1657
Oscillator......Page 1658
References......Page 1659
XIX Digital Systems......Page 1660
127.1 AND Gates......Page 1661
127.2 OR Gates......Page 1662
127.3 INVERTER Circuits......Page 1663
127.4 NAND Gates......Page 1664
127.5 NOR Gates......Page 1665
Defining Terms......Page 1666
Further Information......Page 1667
128.2 Arbitrary Code Counters......Page 1668
128.3 Counter Design......Page 1669
128.5 State Diagrams......Page 1671
128.6 State Diagrams Using Transition Expressions......Page 1672
Further Information......Page 1673
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers......Page 1674
129.1 Definitions......Page 1675
Definition of a Microcontroller......Page 1676
The First Commercially Successful Personal Computer......Page 1677
Microprocessor Advancement from 1970 to Present......Page 1678
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers......Page 1679
A Microcontroller for Hobbyists and Robotics: The 68HC11  Motorola and Others......Page 1682
129.4 Applications of Microcontrollers......Page 1684
References......Page 1685
Further Information......Page 1686
130.1 CPU, Memory, and I/O Interface Connections......Page 1687
130.2 CPU Memory Systems Overview......Page 1688
130.3 Common and Separate I/O Data Buses......Page 1689
130.4 Single-Port RAM Devices......Page 1690
130.5 Additional Types of Memory Devices......Page 1692
Defining Terms......Page 1693
Further Information......Page 1695
131.1 Design Flow......Page 1696
131.3 Hardware Description Languages......Page 1697
Simulation of HDL-Modeled Circuits......Page 1699
131.4 Tradeoffs between HDLs and Schematic Entry......Page 1700
131.5 HDLs and Synthesis......Page 1701
131.6 Transistor-Level Design and Simulation......Page 1702
Further Information......Page 1703
132.1 Nature of Digital Signals......Page 1704
132.3 Timing Analysis......Page 1705
132.4 State Analysis......Page 1706
132.6 Advanced Features of Logic Analyzers......Page 1707
References......Page 1708
Further Information......Page 1709
XX Communications and Signal Processing......Page 1710
133.1 Fourier Transforms......Page 1712
Properties of the DFT......Page 1713
Relation between DFT and Fourier Transform......Page 1715
Data Windowing......Page 1716
Fast Fourier Transform......Page 1718
Computation of the Inverse DFT......Page 1720
Walsh Functions......Page 1721
Walsh-Ordered WalshÒHadamard Transform  WHTw......Page 1723
Fast Walsh-Ordered WalshÒHadamard Transform  FWHTw......Page 1724
Further Information......Page 1726
Digital Filters......Page 1727
134.1 Finite Impulse Response Filter Design......Page 1729
FIR Filter Design by Windowing......Page 1730
134.2 Infinite Impulse Response Filter Design......Page 1732
Notch Filters......Page 1734
Defining Terms......Page 1735
Further Information......Page 1736
135.1 Introduction......Page 1737
Concept of Frequency and Fourier Transform......Page 1738
Amplitude Modulation......Page 1741
Angle Modulation......Page 1743
Noise in Analog Communications......Page 1744
Pulse Code Modulation......Page 1745
Digital Modulation Techniques......Page 1746
Receiver Design in AWGN......Page 1749
Effects of Noise in Digital Transmission......Page 1750
135.4 Multiplexing and Multiple Access......Page 1751
References......Page 1752
136.1 Block Codes......Page 1753
136.2 Convolutional Codes......Page 1755
136.3 Trellis-Coded Modulation......Page 1757
Defining Terms......Page 1759
Further Information......Page 1760
Computer Communication Networks......Page 1761
137.1 General Networking Concepts......Page 1762
137.2 Computer Communication Network Architecture......Page 1765
137.3 Local Area Networks and Internets......Page 1768
137.5 Recent Developments......Page 1770
Defining Terms......Page 1771
References......Page 1772
Further Information......Page 1773
138.2 Information Transfer and Link Margins Û Ground to Space  Up- Link......Page 1774
138.3 Communication Satellite Orbits......Page 1775
138.5 Spacecraft Design......Page 1777
138.6 Propagation......Page 1779
138.8 Ka Band Satellites......Page 1780
138.10 Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems......Page 1781
Further Information......Page 1782
Mobile and Portable Radio Communications......Page 1783
139.1 Technical Challenges to Wireless Communications......Page 1784
Radio Channel Impairments......Page 1785
Scarcity of Licensed Frequency Spectrum......Page 1788
Multiple Access Strategies......Page 1790
Mobility Management......Page 1792
Low Power Requirements......Page 1793
139.2 Evolution of Wireless Services and Standards......Page 1794
Advanced Mobile Phone Service AMPS......Page 1795
GSM and its Evolution......Page 1796
Wireless Local Area Networks......Page 1798
139.3 Summary and Conclusions......Page 1800
Further Information......Page 1801
Optical Communications......Page 1802
140.1 Optical Communications Systems Topologies......Page 1803
140.2 Fibers......Page 1805
140.3 Other Components......Page 1806
Further Information......Page 1807
141.1 Color and Gray Level......Page 1808
141.2 Point Operations......Page 1809
141.3 Image Filtering......Page 1810
141.4 Edge Detection......Page 1811
Inverse filtering......Page 1812
Wiener filter......Page 1813
141.6 Digital Image Segmentation......Page 1814
141.7 Digital Image Compression......Page 1815
141.8 Image Description and Analysis......Page 1816
References......Page 1817
142.1 Introduction......Page 1818
142.2 Complex Envelope Representation......Page 1819
142.3 Representation of Modulated Signals......Page 1820
142.4 Generalized Transmitters and Receivers......Page 1822
142.5 Spectrum and Power of Bandpass Signals......Page 1823
142.6 Amplitude Modulation......Page 1824
142.7 Phase and Frequency Modulation......Page 1826
142.8 QPSK, p/4 QPSK, QAM, and OOK Signalling......Page 1827
Further Information......Page 1830
Section XXI Computers......Page 1832
Computer Organization: Architecture......Page 1833
143.1 Instruction Set......Page 1835
Fixed-Point Data Formats......Page 1838
143.2 RISC Architecture......Page 1840
Defining Terms......Page 1842
References......Page 1843
Further Information......Page 1844
144.1 Introduction......Page 1845
144.2 Architectures of Operating Systems......Page 1846
Unix and Linux Operating Systems......Page 1847
Windows XP Operating System......Page 1848
Process Management......Page 1849
Memory Management......Page 1850
I/O System Management......Page 1851
Communication Management......Page 1852
RTOS+ Architecture......Page 1854
RTOS+ Task Scheduler......Page 1855
Formal Description of RTOS+......Page 1856
References......Page 1858
145.2 Flexibility......Page 1861
Abstraction......Page 1862
Code Management......Page 1863
Concurrency Control......Page 1864
Memory Safety......Page 1865
Proof......Page 1866
Certification......Page 1867
Bug Finding......Page 1868
Execution Time......Page 1869
Memory Management......Page 1870
References......Page 1871
146.1 I/O Devices......Page 1874
Human-Oriented Interface......Page 1875
Nonhuman Interface......Page 1878
146.2 I/O Subsystem......Page 1879
I/O Adapters......Page 1880
CPU Interface Modes......Page 1881
Cables......Page 1882
Channel Specification......Page 1884
Further Information......Page 1885
147.1 Storage Basics......Page 1886
Random Access Memory......Page 1887
SRAM and DRAM Organization......Page 1888
Content Addressable Memory......Page 1889
Nonvolatile Memory......Page 1890
RAID Systems......Page 1891
List of Acronyms......Page 1892
Further Information......Page 1893
Nanocomputers, Nanoarchitectronics, and NanoICs*......Page 1895
148.1 Introduction......Page 1896
148.2 Nanoelectronics and Nanocomputer Fundamentals......Page 1897
148.3 Nanocomputer Architecture......Page 1907
148.4 Hierarchical Finite-State Machines and Their Use in Hardware and Software Design......Page 1913
148.5 Reconfigurable Nanocomputers......Page 1915
Six-Tuple Nanocomputer Model......Page 1917
148.7 Nanocompensator Synthesis and Design Aspects......Page 1919
References......Page 1920
Reliability......Page 1922
Performance......Page 1924
Portability......Page 1925
Rigor and Formality......Page 1926
Modularity......Page 1927
Generality......Page 1929
149.3 Role of Software Engineer......Page 1930
Misconceptions about Software Engineering......Page 1932
References......Page 1933
150.2 Why Is HCI Design Important?......Page 1934
150.3 The Human......Page 1935
Human Physical Abilities......Page 1936
Human Cognitive Capabilities......Page 1938
150.5 Usability Principles......Page 1939
150.7 Task Analysis......Page 1941
Task Decomposition......Page 1942
Knowledge-Based Analysis......Page 1943
150.8 Implementation Evaluation......Page 1944
References......Page 1945
Further Information......Page 1946
Section XXII Measurement and Instrumentation......Page 1947
Sensors and Transducers......Page 1949
151.1 Physical Sensors......Page 1950
Temperature Sensors......Page 1952
Displacement and Force Sensors......Page 1953
Ion-Selective Electrode......Page 1954
Gas Chromatograph......Page 1955
Enzyme Sensor......Page 1956
151.4 Microsensors......Page 1957
Defining Terms......Page 1958
Further Information......Page 1959
Measurement Errors and Uncertainty......Page 1960
152.1 Measurement Errors and Uncertainty......Page 1961
152.3 Propagation of Measurement Uncertainty......Page 1964
Example......Page 1965
Defining Terms......Page 1967
Further Information......Page 1968
153.1 Linear Operations......Page 1969
Amplitude Scaling......Page 1970
Impedance Transformation......Page 1972
153.2 Nonlinear Operations......Page 1973
153.3 Example......Page 1974
References......Page 1975
Further Information......Page 1976
154.2 Telemetry Systems......Page 1977
153.3 Data Channels......Page 1978
153.4 Data Transmission Formats......Page 1979
Further Information......Page 1982
Recording Instruments......Page 1983
155.2 Paper Recorders: Strip Charts and Circular Charts......Page 1984
155.4 Semiconductor Memory Recorders......Page 1986
155.7 Tradeoffs in Recorder Selection......Page 1987
Further Information......Page 1988
Bioinstrumentation......Page 1989
156.1 Basic Bioinstrumentation Systems......Page 1990
156.2 Applications and Examples......Page 1991
Further Information......Page 1994
157.1 Data Types......Page 1995
157.2 Polymorphism......Page 1997
157.4 Data Coercion......Page 1999
157.5 Error Handling......Page 2000
Usage......Page 2001
Custom Error Codes......Page 2003
Keyboard Shortcuts......Page 2005
Miscellaneous Front Panel and Block Diagram Shortcuts......Page 2006
157.8 Code Distribution......Page 2007
Diagram Access......Page 2008
The Runtime Engine RTE......Page 2010
157.10 Open Source G: Distributed Development......Page 2011
Defining Terms......Page 2012
Further Information......Page 2013
Sensors......Page 2014
Standards for Intelligent Sensors......Page 2015
Sensor Networks......Page 2016
158.3 Voltage and Current Sensors......Page 2017
Types of Current Sensors......Page 2018
Primary Magnetic Sensors......Page 2019
158.5 Capacitive and Charge Sensors......Page 2021
158.6 Acoustic Sensors......Page 2022
158.7 Temperature and Heat Sensors......Page 2024
Heat Sensors......Page 2027
158.8 Light and Radiation Sensors......Page 2028
Photosensors......Page 2029
Radiation Sensors......Page 2031
158.9 Chemical and Gas Sensors......Page 2032
Gas Sensors......Page 2033
Biological Sensors......Page 2034
Environmental Sensors......Page 2035
Position, Displacement, and Proximity Sensors......Page 2037
Force Sensors......Page 2039
Accelerometers......Page 2040
Stress and Strain Sensors......Page 2041
Density Sensors......Page 2042
References......Page 2043
AC Electrokinetics of Particles......Page 2045
159.1 Theory......Page 2048
159.2 Applications for Particle Characterization and Separation......Page 2054
References......Page 2058
Biomedical Engineering......Page 2061
160.1 Activities of Biomedical Engineers......Page 2062
References......Page 2063
Section XXIII Surveying......Page 2064
Quality Control......Page 2066
161.2 Errors......Page 2067
161.3 Precision......Page 2069
161.4 Law of Propagation of Errors......Page 2070
Example: Standard Deviation of the Sample Mean......Page 2071
Monte Carlo Simulation......Page 2072
161.5 Statistical Testing......Page 2073
Normalized Residual Test......Page 2074
Sigma Zero......Page 2075
Testing of Variances......Page 2076
161.6 Accuracy......Page 2077
Internal Reliability......Page 2078
161.8 Up-to-date-ness or Currency......Page 2079
161.9 Attribute Data Errors......Page 2080
Further Information......Page 2082
162.1 Measures of Elevation and Height......Page 2086
162.3 Vertical Datums......Page 2088
Ordinary Differential Leveling......Page 2089
Instruments......Page 2090
Instrument Adjustment......Page 2092
References......Page 2093
Further Information......Page 2094
Distance Measurements......Page 2095
Tacheometric Measurements......Page 2096
How Does EDM Work?......Page 2097
Approximate Methods......Page 2099
Taping......Page 2100
Example 163.2......Page 2101
Stadia......Page 2102
Example 163.5......Page 2103
Sea Level Correction......Page 2104
Laser Scanning......Page 2105
Electronic Distance Meters......Page 2106
Example 163.7......Page 2107
Defining Terms......Page 2108
Further Information......Page 2109
164.1 Angles......Page 2110
164.3 Direction......Page 2112
164.5 Applications......Page 2113
Further Information......Page 2114
Photogrammetry and Topographic Mapping......Page 2115
Photography Acquisition......Page 2116
Survey Control......Page 2117
Traditional Photogrammetry......Page 2118
Softcopy Photogrammetry......Page 2119
Digital Image Acquisition......Page 2120
Light Detection and Ranging......Page 2121
Synthetic Aperture Radar and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar......Page 2122
165.3 Topographic Mapping in a Geographic Information System......Page 2123
165.4 Delaunay Triangulation and Dirichlet Tessellation......Page 2126
References......Page 2128
Software Used......Page 2129
166.1 Principles of Multivariate Calculus......Page 2130
166.2 Principles of Linear Algebra......Page 2131
166.3 Model of Two Sets of Variables, Observations, and Parameters: The Mixed Model......Page 2133
166.4 Observations as a Function of Parameters Only: The Model of Observation Equations......Page 2135
Notation......Page 2137
166.5 All Parameters Eliminated: The Model of Condition Equations......Page 2138
Directional Measurements......Page 2139
Distance Measurements......Page 2140
166.7 Dynamical Systems......Page 2141
Further Information......Page 2142
167.1 A Satellite Orbiting the Earth......Page 2145
167.2 The Orbital Ellipse......Page 2146
167.3 Relationship between Cartesian and Keplerian Orbital Elements......Page 2148
167.4 Orbit of a Satellite in a Noncentral Force Field......Page 2149
167.5 The Global Positioning System GPS......Page 2150
Positioning......Page 2151
Limiting Factors......Page 2152
Pseudo Range......Page 2153
Carrier Phase......Page 2154
GPS Base Stations......Page 2155
One-Dimensional Positioning: Heights and Vertical Control......Page 2156
Two-Dimensional Positioning: East/North and Horizontal Control......Page 2158
3-D Positioning: Geocentric Positions and Full 3-D Control......Page 2159
References......Page 2160
Further Information......Page 2161
Surveying Applications for Geographic Information Systems......Page 2163
168.1 GIS Fundamentals......Page 2164
168.2 Monumentation or Control Surveying......Page 2166
168.3 Topographic Surveying......Page 2168
168.4 Digital Representation of Topography......Page 2169
168.5 GIS and Survey Specifications......Page 2172
Defining Terms......Page 2173
Further Information......Page 2174
169.1 Electromagnetic Energy......Page 2175
Aerial Photography......Page 2177
Multispectral, Thermal, and Hyperspectral Scanners......Page 2178
Imaging Radar......Page 2179
169.4 Remote Sensing from Earth Orbit......Page 2180
169.5 Earth Observing System......Page 2182
Defining Terms......Page 2183
Further Information......Page 2184
Section XXIV Control Systems......Page 2185
170.1 Feedback Control in Engineering......Page 2187
170.2 Fundamentals of Feedback for Linear-Time-Invariant Systems......Page 2188
Open Loop Control......Page 2189
Feedback Control......Page 2190
Tracking......Page 2191
Sensitivity......Page 2192
References and Further Reading......Page 2193
171.2 Concept and Definition of Root Locus......Page 2195
Concept of Root Locus......Page 2196
Rules/Steps for Constructing Root Locus......Page 2197
171.5 Software for Root Locus......Page 2203
171.8 Conclusions......Page 2204
References......Page 2206
172.1 Concept and Definition of Frequency Response......Page 2208
172.3 Stability......Page 2209
172.4 Nyquist Criterion for Stability......Page 2211
172.5 Gain Design for Stability via the Nyquist Criterion......Page 2213
172.6 Stability via Separate Magnitude and Phase Plots  Bode Plots......Page 2215
Further Information......Page 2216
173.1 Correlation between Transient and Frequency Response......Page 2217
173.2 Determining K to Yield a Desired Mp......Page 2219
173.3 Gain Margin and Phase Margin......Page 2220
Lead Compensation......Page 2223
Lag Compensation......Page 2225
Lag-lead Compensation......Page 2226
173.5 Internal Feedback......Page 2227
173.6 Compensation on the S Plane......Page 2229
References......Page 2230
174.1 Defining the Process Control Design Problem......Page 2231
174.2 Single-Variable Control......Page 2234
Single-Loop Control Performance......Page 2235
Single-Loop Control Improvement Through Process Modifications......Page 2237
Single-Loop Control Improvements Through Control Structure Modifications......Page 2239
174.3 Principles of Multiple Input-Output Control......Page 2242
174.4 Multiloop Multivariable Control......Page 2243
174.5 Centralized Multivariable Control......Page 2248
References......Page 2254
Further Information......Page 2255
Digital Control......Page 2256
175.1 Discrete Time Systems......Page 2257
Transfer Functions......Page 2258
System Response......Page 2260
Characterization of Closed-Loop Systems......Page 2261
Characterization of Discrete Time Systems......Page 2263
175.2 Digital Simulation of Analog Controllers......Page 2264
175.3 Design of Digital Controllers......Page 2266
Root Locus Design......Page 2267
Controller Design Using Root Locus......Page 2268
Defining Terms......Page 2269
References......Page 2270
176.2 Robot Control Problem......Page 2271
176.3 Basic Joint Position Dynamic Model......Page 2272
176.4 Independent Joint Position Control......Page 2274
Definition of Specifications......Page 2275
Proportional P Control......Page 2277
Proportional Derivative PD Control......Page 2278
Proportional Integral Derivative PID Control......Page 2282
176.5 Method of Computed Torque......Page 2283
Defining Terms......Page 2284
References......Page 2285
177.1 Linear State Space Control Systems......Page 2286
177.2 Controllability and Observability......Page 2287
177.3 Eigenvalue Placement......Page 2288
177.4 Observer Design......Page 2289
Defining Terms......Page 2290
Further Information......Page 2291
Feedback Linearization......Page 2292
Input-Output Linearization......Page 2294
Zero Dynamics......Page 2296
Local Output Tracking......Page 2297
Control Lyapunov Functions......Page 2300
Backstepping......Page 2303
Adaptive Control......Page 2304
Dissipative Systems......Page 2306
Passive Systems......Page 2307
Input-to-State Stability......Page 2309
Dissipative Systems......Page 2311
179.1 Basic Definitions......Page 2312
179.2 Key Elements of Mechatronics......Page 2313
179.3 Historical Perspective......Page 2315
179.4 Future of Mechatronics......Page 2318
References......Page 2319
Section XXV Manufacturing......Page 2321
180.1 Job-Shop and Batch Production......Page 2323
180.3 Continuous Production......Page 2324
180.5 Capital Investment, Automation, Advanced Technology, Skills, and Layout......Page 2325
Further Information......Page 2326
181.1 Measurement......Page 2327
Normal Distribution......Page 2328
Control Charts for Variables......Page 2329
Control Charts for Attributes......Page 2331
181.3 Tolerances and Capability......Page 2333
References......Page 2334
Further Information......Page 2335
Flexible Manufacturing......Page 2336
182.1 Flexible Machining......Page 2337
182.2 Flexible Assembly......Page 2338
Further Information......Page 2340
183.1 Management: Fundamental Concepts......Page 2342
Management Roles......Page 2343
Leadership......Page 2344
World-Class Management......Page 2345
Value Chain Analysis......Page 2346
183.3 Managing-for-Value Principles......Page 2347
Defining Terms......Page 2348
References......Page 2350
Further Information......Page 2351
184.1 The System Design Process......Page 2352
184.2 Rapid Prototyping......Page 2355
184.3 When to Use Modeling and Prototyping......Page 2356
Further Information......Page 2357
Materials Processing and Manufacturing Methods......Page 2358
Casting Methods......Page 2359
Metalworking Methods......Page 2360
Machining and Finishing......Page 2361
Glasses and Glass-Ceramics......Page 2363
Polymer Processing......Page 2364
Mechanical Fastening......Page 2365
Joining of Plastics, Ceramics, and Glasses......Page 2366
Microfabrication and Nanofabrication......Page 2367
185.5 Measurement and Inspection......Page 2368
References......Page 2369
Further Information......Page 2370
186.1 Economic Impact......Page 2371
186.2 Types of Machine Tools......Page 2372
186.3 Control of Machine Tools......Page 2373
Feedback Control......Page 2374
186.4 Machine Tool Accuracy......Page 2375
Further Information......Page 2377
Ergonomics/ Human Factors......Page 2378
187.2 Concept of HumanÒMachine Systems......Page 2379
Symvatology: The Science of ArtifactÒHuman Compatibility......Page 2381
HCI definition......Page 2385
Usability Engineering......Page 2386
187.6 The Role of Ergonomics in Prevention of Occupational Musculoskeletal Injury......Page 2387
System Integration Paradigm......Page 2389
Management Integration Framework for Quality, Ergonomics, and Occupational Safety Issues......Page 2390
References......Page 2391
Further information......Page 2393
188.1 Pressure......Page 2395
Basic Pressure Equations......Page 2396
Basic Design Equations Internally Pressurized Vessels......Page 2398
188.2 The Vacuum Environment......Page 2400
Methods for Measuring Subatmospheric Pressures......Page 2401
Vacuum System Design......Page 2402
Further Information......Page 2405
189.1 Liquid Transport Systems......Page 2407
189.2 Heat Transfer......Page 2410
Nomenclature......Page 2417
Further Information......Page 2419
Field Capacity......Page 2421
Power Requirements......Page 2422
Soil Tillage......Page 2424
Crop Planting......Page 2426
Crop Harvest......Page 2427
References......Page 2428
Further Information......Page 2429
System Reliability......Page 2430
191.1 Catastrophic Failure Models......Page 2431
191.3 Mean Time to Failure......Page 2432
191.7 Application of the Binomial Distribution......Page 2433
191.9 Exponential Distribution......Page 2434
191.11 Combinatorial Aspects......Page 2435
191.12 Modeling Maintenance......Page 2437
191.14 Binary Model for Reparable Component......Page 2438
191.15 Two Dissimilar Reparable Components......Page 2439
191.18 Applications of Markov Process......Page 2441
191.20 Reliability and Economics......Page 2442
System Redundancy......Page 2443
Unit Redundancy......Page 2444
Further Information......Page 2445
Definition and Rationale......Page 2446
192.2 Data Mining......Page 2447
General Methodology......Page 2448
192.3 CIM and Data Mining......Page 2449
Data Mining Process in Engineering......Page 2450
Data Mining in Engineering Design......Page 2451
Data Mining for Quality Management......Page 2454
Data Mining in Process and Resource Planning......Page 2455
References......Page 2456
XXVI Aeronautical and Aerospace......Page 2457
193.1 Background......Page 2458
193.2 Flow about a Body......Page 2459
Lift......Page 2460
193.3 Two-Dimensional Airfoils......Page 2462
193.4 Finite Wing Effects......Page 2465
193.5 Effects of Compressibility......Page 2468
Further Information......Page 2469
Wind Shear......Page 2470
Turbulence......Page 2472
Fourier Integral Representation......Page 2473
Aerodynamic Force/Moment Prediction......Page 2475
Computer Simulation......Page 2476
Defining Terms......Page 2477
Further Information......Page 2478
195.1 Geometry Modeling and Grid Generation......Page 2479
195.2 Flow Simulation Algorithms......Page 2480
195.4 Flow Simulation Examples......Page 2481
195.5 Future Directions and Challenges......Page 2486
References......Page 2489
196.1 System and Material Requirements......Page 2490
196.2 Material Selection by Subsystems and Loads......Page 2493
Propulsion Subsystem Materials......Page 2496
196.3 Flight Speed/Altitude/Temperature Effects on Material Selection......Page 2497
196.4 Effects of Materials on Empty-Weight Mass Fractions and the Future......Page 2499
Defining Terms......Page 2501
Further Information......Page 2502
197.1 Performance Characteristics......Page 2503
Expander......Page 2505
Gas Generator......Page 2507
Staged Combustion......Page 2509
Main Injector......Page 2510
Thrust Chamber......Page 2511
197.4 System Preliminary Design Process......Page 2512
197.5 Conclusion......Page 2515
Further Information......Page 2517
Aircraft Performance and Design......Page 2518
Aerodynamic Forces......Page 2519
Propulsion Subsystems......Page 2520
Weight Fractions......Page 2522
198.2 Level Flight......Page 2523
198.3 Climbing Flight......Page 2524
References......Page 2526
Further Information......Page 2527
Spacecraft and Mission Design......Page 2528
199.2 Fundamental Principles......Page 2529
Launch Vehicles......Page 2530
Entry Vehicles......Page 2531
Power Subsystem......Page 2532
Solar Radiation Stabilization......Page 2533
Launch Vehicles......Page 2534
199.5 Spacecraft/Mission Design Process......Page 2535
Defining Terms......Page 2536
Further Information......Page 2537
Section XXVII Safety......Page 2538
200.1 Hazard Identification......Page 2539
Trip, Slip, and Fall......Page 2540
Routes of Entry......Page 2541
Mechanisms of Injury......Page 2542
200.5 Noise......Page 2543
200.7 An Engineering Approach to Hazard Control......Page 2544
Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis......Page 2545
Hazard and Operability Study......Page 2546
Event Tree Analysis......Page 2547
References......Page 2548
Further Information......Page 2549
Regulations and Standards......Page 2550
201.1 Engineering Practices......Page 2551
References......Page 2556
Section XXVIII Engineering Economics and Management......Page 2558
Analysis Period......Page 2560
Cash Flows......Page 2562
202.2 Application......Page 2563
Savings vs. Income/Returns......Page 2564
Defining Terms......Page 2565
Further Information......Page 2566
203.1 Net Present Value......Page 2567
203.2 Internal Rate of Return......Page 2568
203.4 Project Investment Base......Page 2569
203.5 Scale-Adjusted MIRR......Page 2570
203.6 Project Life Differences......Page 2571
203.7 Conclusion......Page 2572
Further Information......Page 2573
204.2 Steps in Carrying Out Project Selection......Page 2575
Other Methods......Page 2577
204.4 Applications......Page 2578
References......Page 2579
Further Information......Page 2580
205.1 Depreciation as Tax Deduction......Page 2581
205.2 Tax Laws and Tax Planning......Page 2582
205.4 Inflation Consideration......Page 2583
205.5 After-Tax Cash Flows......Page 2584
205.6 Evaluation of After-Tax Cash Flows......Page 2585
205.7 Effects of Various Factors......Page 2586
Defining Terms......Page 2588
Further Information......Page 2589
Term Loans......Page 2590
206.2 Equity Financing......Page 2591
206.3 Leasing......Page 2592
Accounting Treatment of Leases......Page 2593
Defining Terms......Page 2594
Further Information......Page 2595
Hazards......Page 2596
Risk......Page 2597
Performance......Page 2599
Safety......Page 2600
Risk Assessment Methodologies......Page 2602
Risk Breakdown Structure......Page 2605
System Definition for Risk Assessment......Page 2606
Selected Risk Assessment Methods......Page 2608
Human-Related Risks......Page 2617
Economic and Financial Risks......Page 2620
Data Needs for Risk Assessment......Page 2621
207.3 Risk Management and Control......Page 2622
Risk Acceptance......Page 2623
Benefit-Cost Analysis......Page 2628
Risk Mitigation......Page 2631
207.4 Risk Communication......Page 2634
Further Information......Page 2635
208.1 Sensitivity Analysis Applications......Page 2636
Sensitivity Graph for Gas Heating Systems......Page 2637
Spider Diagram for a Commercial Building Investment......Page 2638
Defining Terms......Page 2639
Further Information......Page 2640
209.1 Life-Cycle Costing Situation......Page 2641
Preliminary System Design......Page 2643
209.3 Cost Breakdown Structure......Page 2644
Analysis Guidelines and Constraints......Page 2645
209.5 Cost Treatment over Life Cycle......Page 2646
209.6 Summary......Page 2647
Further Information......Page 2648
Project Evaluation and Selection......Page 2649
Net Present Value Comparison......Page 2651
Cost-Benefit......Page 2652
Pacifico and Sobelman Project Ratings......Page 2653
Collective Multifunctional Evaluations......Page 2654
210.3 Recommendations for Effective Project Evaluation and Selection......Page 2655
References......Page 2657
Further Information......Page 2658
Project Performance Measures......Page 2659
Work Breakdown Structure......Page 2660
Event-Oriented Diagram......Page 2661
Floats......Page 2662
Managing Time and Money......Page 2663
Managing the Floats......Page 2664
Cost Duration Analysis......Page 2665
211.5 Project Management Using CPM......Page 2666
Further Information......Page 2667
Intellectual Property: Patents, Trade Secrets, Copyrights, Trademarks, and Licenses......Page 2668
212.1 Patents......Page 2669
212.3 Licenses......Page 2671
212.4 Copyrights and Anticircumvention Rights......Page 2672
212.5 Trademarks......Page 2673
Defining Terms......Page 2674
Further Information......Page 2675
Section XXIX Materials Engineering......Page 2676
213.2 Composition......Page 2677
213.3 Physical Properties......Page 2678
213.4 Mechanical Properties......Page 2679
213.5 Thermal Properties......Page 2680
213.6 Chemical Properties......Page 2681
213.7 Electrical and Optical Properties......Page 2682
Defining Terms......Page 2683
Further Information......Page 2684
214.1 Types of Failures......Page 2685
214.3 Fracture Mechanics......Page 2686
Radiographic Testing......Page 2687
Ultrasonic Testing......Page 2688
Other Methods of Nondestructive Testing......Page 2689
214.5 Engineering Design for Failure Prevention......Page 2690
Further Information......Page 2691
215.1 Viscosity......Page 2692
215.2 Thermal Conductivity......Page 2693
215.3 Heat Capacity......Page 2694
215.4 Vapor Pressure......Page 2695
References......Page 2696
Further Information......Page 2697
216.1 History......Page 2698
216.3 Immunology and Biocompatibility......Page 2699
216.4 Commonly Used Implant Materials......Page 2700
216.6 Polymers......Page 2701
216.8 Carbon Materials......Page 2703
Further Information......Page 2704
Triangles......Page 2708
Trigonometric Functions of an Angle......Page 2709
Trigonometric Identities......Page 2710
Bernoulli and Euler Numbers......Page 2712
Series of Functions......Page 2713
Error Function......Page 2715
Series Expansion......Page 2716
Radius of Curvature......Page 2720
Points of Inflection of a Curve......Page 2721
Indeterminant Forms......Page 2722
Numerical Methods......Page 2723
Partial Derivatives......Page 2724
Common Applications of the Definite Integral......Page 2725
Double Integration......Page 2727
Centroid......Page 2728
Bessel Functions......Page 2730
Legendre Polynomials......Page 2731
Hermite Polynomials......Page 2733
Functions with x2/a2 ± y2/b2......Page 2734
Functions with x2/a2 + y2/b2 ± c21/2......Page 2736
218.1 Basic Definitions......Page 2739
218.3 Systems of Equations......Page 2740
218.5 Rank and Nullity......Page 2742
218.6 Orthogonality and Length......Page 2743
218.8 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors......Page 2744
References......Page 2745
219.1 Basic Definitions......Page 2746
219.3 Vector Functions......Page 2747
219.5 Integration......Page 2749
Further Information......Page 2750
220.1 Basic Definitions and Arithmetic......Page 2751
220.2 Complex Functions......Page 2752
220.4 Integration......Page 2753
220.5 Series......Page 2754
220.6 Singularities......Page 2755
References......Page 2756
Further Information......Page 2757
221.2 Second-Order Equations......Page 2758
221.4 Generating Function Transform......Page 2759
References......Page 2761
First-Order Equations......Page 2762
Second-Order Equations......Page 2763
Second-Order Nonhomogeneous Equations......Page 2765
Series Solution......Page 2766
222.2 Partial Differential Equations......Page 2767
Methods of Solution......Page 2768
Similarity Invariance......Page 2769
GreenÌs Function......Page 2770
Conversion to Other Orthogonal Coordinate Systems......Page 2771
References......Page 2772
Further Information......Page 2773
223.1 Classification and Notation......Page 2774
223.2 Relation to Differential Equations......Page 2775
References......Page 2776
Regular Perturbation......Page 2777
Boundary Layer Method......Page 2778
References......Page 2779
Properties of the Laplace Transform......Page 2780
Properties of the Fourier Transform......Page 2783
Properties of the Fourier Cosine Transform......Page 2784
Further Information......Page 2785
226.1 Chaos......Page 2786
226.2 Fractals......Page 2790
226.3 Julia Sets......Page 2794
References......Page 2796
227.1 The Euler Equation......Page 2797
227.2 The Variation......Page 2798
References......Page 2799
Random Variables and Probability Distributions......Page 2800
The Normal Distribution......Page 2801
Random Sample and Related Statistics......Page 2802
Two-Sample Case......Page 2803
One-Sample Case......Page 2804
Two-Sample Case......Page 2805
One-Sample Case......Page 2806
Two-Sample Case......Page 2807
One-Sample Case......Page 2808
Two-Sample Case......Page 2809
Further Information......Page 2810
229.1 Linear Programming......Page 2811
229.3 Constrained Nonlinear Programming......Page 2812
References......Page 2813
Numerical Methods......Page 2814
Direct Methods......Page 2815
Iterative Methods......Page 2819
Special Methods for Polynomials......Page 2820
The Graeffe Root-Squaring Technique......Page 2821
Successive Substitutions......Page 2822
The NewtonÒRaphson Procedure......Page 2823
Methods of Perturbation......Page 2824
Divided Differences of Higher Order and Higher-Order Interpolation......Page 2827
Lagrange Interpolation Formulas......Page 2828
Other Difference Methods Equally Spaced Ordinates......Page 2829
The Use of Interpolation Formulas......Page 2830
Smoothing Techniques......Page 2831
Least Squares Methods......Page 2832
NewtonÒCotes Formulas Equally Spaced Ordinates......Page 2833
Two-Dimensional Formula......Page 2834
The Modified Euler Method......Page 2835
RungeÒKutta Methods......Page 2836
Equations of Higher Order and Simultaneous Differential Equations......Page 2837
230.10 Numerical Methods for Partial Differential Equations......Page 2838
Finite Difference Methods......Page 2839
Weighted Residual Methods......Page 2840
Finite Elements......Page 2841
Method of Lines......Page 2843
DFT Properties......Page 2844
Partial Differential Equations Packages......Page 2845
References......Page 2847
231.2 Method of Dimensions......Page 2848
References......Page 2851
232.1 3-D Display of Objects......Page 2852
232.2 Scalar Display Techniques......Page 2853
232.4 Continuum Volume Visualization......Page 2854
232.5 Animation Over Time......Page 2855
References......Page 2856
Further Information......Page 2857
Appendix: Mathematical Tables and Formulae......Page 2858
Definitions of SI Base Units......Page 2859
SI Derived Units with Special Names and Symbols......Page 2860
Conversion Factors Û Metric to English......Page 2861
Conversion Factors Û General......Page 2862
General......Page 2863
A.5 Symbols and Terminology for Physical and Chemical Quantities......Page 2864
Logarithms......Page 2868
Progression......Page 2869
Polar Form......Page 2870
Cubic......Page 2871
Geometry......Page 2872
A.7 Table of Derivatives......Page 2873
Additional Relations with Derivatives......Page 2874
Elementary Forms......Page 2875
Forms Containing......Page 2876
A.9 The Fourier Transforms......Page 2877
Fourier Transforms......Page 2878
Finite Sine Transforms......Page 2880
Fourier Sine Transforms......Page 2881
Fourier Transforms......Page 2882
Bessel Functions of the Second Kind, Ynx Also Called Neumann Functions or Weber Functions Figure A.14......Page 2884
Associated Legendre Functions of the First Kind, Pn mx Figure A.15......Page 2885
A.12 Table of Differential Equations......Page 2886
References......Page 2888