The Dynamical Ionosphere: A Systems Approach to Ionospheric Irregularity

Front matter
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Introduction
	References
Day-to-day variability of the ionosphere
	Overview
	Quantifying ionospheric variability: Peak electron density and total electron content
	References
Ionospheric conjugate point science: Hemispheric coupling
	Plasma instability conjugate science
	Electrobuoyancy conjugate science
	Transitions from conjugate to nonconjugate science: Coherence of ionospheres not connected by B-field lines
	References
Status and future directions
	References
Mid-latitude ionospheric features: Natural complexity in action
	Introduction
	Plasmasphere boundary layer
		Overview and definition
		Frontier questions on PBL-region ionospheric variability
	Ionospheric consequences of mid-latitude M-I electrodynamics
		SED and SAPS/SAID
		Mid-latitude fine-scale structure associated with SAPS/SAID
		Resolving theories of SAPS/SAID and SED structure
	Geospace system impacts of PBL electron density structuring
	Mid-latitude ionospheric irregularities
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Empirical ionospheric models
	Conceptual introduction
	Ionospheric models
	Brief history of the empirical ionospheric models
	IRI model
	NeQuick model
	The future
	Acknowledgment
	References
Wrap up
	References
Space weather: Variability in the Sun-Earth connection
	The Sun
		Structure of the interior of the Sun
		Surface of the Sun: Photosphere
		Atmosphere of the Sun: Chromosphere, transition region, and corona
	Changes in the Sun
		Rotation of the Sun and Carrington solar coordinates
		Evolution of the photospheric magnetic field
		Variability of the solar energetic output
	The solar wind and its variability
		Variability of the solar wind at the Earth
	Space storms
		Flares and CMEs
		Solar energetic particles and cosmic rays
	References
	Further reading
Storms and substorms-The new whole system approach and future challenges
	Introduction
		A brief description of the evolution of storm time response of the ionosphere prior to the new perspective
		Discussions on coupling of the ionosphere with the plasmasphere and magnetosphere were initiated
		Questions
		Progress in modeling and observations
	New developments
		Overview
		Storm time response of ionospheric electrodynamics
			Overview
			Prompt penetration electric field
				What is the prompt penetration electric field?
				Physical mechanisms of under- vs overshielding
				Recent studies
			Subauroral ion drift and subauroral polarization streams
				SAID vs SAPS
				SAID/SAPS generation mechanism: voltage vs current generators
				Recent studies
			Neutral wind-generated electric fields
				Overview
				Wind-generated electric fields at mid and low latitudes: The disturbance dynamo effect
				Wind-generated electric fields at high latitude: The flywheel effect
				Impact of neutral wind-generated electric fields on the magnetosphere
		Response of ionosphere to electric fields
			Overview
			What are the dusk effect and SED?
			Formation mechanisms
			Universal time, longitude, season, IMF, and hemispheric dependences
			Ionosphere-plasmasphere-magnetosphere coupling
	Summary and future challenges
		Summary
		Unsolved questions
		Future directions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Geomagnetically induced currents
	Introduction
	Geomagnetic storm
	Geomagnetically induced currents evaluation
	The 2015 June event
		June 22 sudden impulse: IP3
	A comparison with 2015 St. Patrick\'s Day storm
	Summary and Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
From instability to irregularities
	Introduction
	Theoretical background
	Interchange instabilities and equatorial spread F (ESF)
	Instability in sporadic-E-layers
	Farley-Buneman waves
	Artificial irregularities and ionospheric modification
		Excitation threshold
		Hysteresis and preconditioning
		Echo timescales
		Gyroharmonic effects
		Fine structure
	Summary and conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Equatorial F region irregularities
	Introduction
		Generation mechanism
	Observational techniques used in ESF investigation, and the irregularity types
	Spatial and temporal distribution, and variabilities of the irregularities
		Upward propagating wave disturbances
		Equator-ward propagating disturbances in the form of penetration electric field or ionosphere-thermosphere (I-T) per ...
			ESF/bubble development or disruption due to undershielding electric field
	Summary
	References
	Further reading
Scintillation theory
	Introduction
	The Rytov approximation
	Mutual coherence function
	The parabolic wave equation
	MPS calculation
	Formulation
		Propagation through a phase screen
		Free-space propagation
		Phase-screen generation
		Example of wide bandwidth propagation
	Conclusion
	References
The complex ionosphere
	Introduction
	Smooth and deterministic: FD of the EI
		The ``parcel philosophy´´
		The ionospheric fluid equations
		Complexity within and beyond the basic fluid approximation
	Noisy turbulence in the equatorial spread F
		The system
		Functional formalism
		Kernel Aψ;ti,tf for a calculable C case
		Problems and perspectives
	A few take-home messages
	References
High-resolution approaches to ionospheric exploration
	Introduction
	Conceptual framework
	Sensor models
		Photometric imaging
		Incoherent scatter radar
		Global navigation satellite systems
		Ionosonde
	Data fusion
		Reconstruction filter for ISR
		Reconstruction filter for TEC
		Formulation of the joint reconstruction filter
		Example application: Reconstruction of B density structure
	Summary
	References
Advanced statistical tools in the near-Earth space science
	Introduction
	Scale invariance and statistical properties: Analysis methods
	Information theory-based approaches
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Ionospheric science in the age of big data
	Current state of the ionospheric science
	Data mining for scientific data landscape
		Supervised learning
			Application of SVM in ionospheric science
		Other interpretable supervised learning techniques
		Artificial neural networks and deep learning
			Auto encoders
		Unsupervised learning
			Other unsupervised learning methods
				Anomaly detection
				Dimensionality reduction
	Ionospheric questions that can benefit from machine learning
		Notes of caution
			Data distribution
			Data gaps
			Hyperparameter tuning
			Evaluating the model performance
	Infrastructure needed to enable big data approaches
	Summary and future
	References
	Further reading
Scintillation modeling
	Introduction
	Propagation modeling from real in situ measurements: The WAM model
		Theoretical framework
		Predictions of the WAM model
	From semi-empirical to empirical climatology
		The ground-based scintillation climatology
		Examples of GBSC outputs
	Critical review and perspectives
	References
Multiscale analysis of the turbulent ionospheric medium
	Introduction
	Multiscale nature of the ionospheric medium
	Application: Case study in the ionosphere
	Acknowledgments
	References
The future of the ionosphere (according to us)
	References
Index