The Dynamic Loss of Earth's Radiation Belts: From Loss in the Magnetosphere to Particle Precipitation in the Atmosphere

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The Dynamic Loss of Earth’s Radiation Belts: From Loss in the Magnetosphere to
Particle Precipitation in the Atmosphere
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List of contributors
Preface
1 Outer radiation belt losses by magnetopause incursions and outward radial transport: new insight and outstanding question...
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Observational results during the Van Allen Probes era
		1.2.1 Statistical studies
		1.2.2 Case studies
	1.3 New modeling approaches and results
		1.3.1 Losses of electrons to the magnetopause
		1.3.2 Losses by outward radial transport
		1.3.3 Quantifying the relative importance of different loss mechanisms during dropouts
	1.4 Outstanding questions and suggestions for future studies
	1.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
2 Ultralow frequency-wave induced losses
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Ultralow frequency waves in the magnetosphere
		2.2.1 Definition of ultralow frequency waves
	2.3 Observations and simulations of ultralow frequency wave-particle and wave-wave interactions
		2.3.1 Direct ultralow frequency generated precipitation
			2.3.1.1 Observations of precipitation with ultralow frequency modulation
			2.3.1.2 Fermi acceleration
			2.3.1.3 Changing loss cone
		2.3.2 Ultralow frequency-generated magnetopause shadowing
		2.3.3 Ultralow frequency modulation of higher frequency waves
	2.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
3 Observations of radiation belt losses due to cyclotron wave-particle interactions
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Background
		3.2.1 Doppler-shifted cyclotron resonance and quasi-linear theory
		3.2.2 Overview of precipitation observations
		3.2.3 Key wave modes involved in radiation belt electron loss
			3.2.3.1 Plasmaspheric hiss
			3.2.3.2 Chorus
			3.2.3.3 Electromagnetic ion cyclotron
	3.3 Radiation belt structure and morphology
		3.3.1 Inner zone and slot
		3.3.2 Outer zone
	3.4 Modern single- and multiple-point observations, and updating the classic picture
		3.4.1 New (Single-satellite) observations of wave characteristics
			3.4.1.1 Wave populations at extended frequency ranges
			3.4.1.2 Wave populations with a wide range of wave normal angles
			3.4.1.3 Wave-element structure/coherence
			3.4.1.4 Large-amplitude waves
		3.4.2 New (multipayload) observations of wave/precipitation characteristics
			3.4.2.1 Linking precipitation and plasmaspheric hiss observations
			3.4.2.2 Linking precipitation and chorus observations
			3.4.2.3 Linking precipitation and EMIC observations
	3.5 Discussion and conclusions
		3.5.1 Incorporating cyclotron resonant scattering into radiation belt models
		3.5.2 Summary
	References
	Further reading
4 Wave-particle interactions with coherent magnetosonic waves
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Mathematical model
	4.3 Wave-particle interactions with magnetosonic waves—coherent
	4.4 Equatorially mirroring electrons
	4.5 Bounce resonance diffusion theory
	4.6 Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
5 Nanosat and balloon-based studies of radiation belt loss: low-cost access to space
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 The early days of energetic particle precipitation
	5.3 Extending the precipitation spectra to higher energies
	5.4 CubeSats
	5.5 Looking forward
	References
	Further reading
6 Incoherent scatter radar observations of 10–100keV precipitation: review and outlook
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Review of methodology
		6.2.1 Particle transport and ionization
			6.2.1.1 Empirical models
			6.2.1.2 Transport models
			6.2.1.3 Monte Carlo techniques
		6.2.2 Chemistry models
			6.2.2.1 E-region chemistry
			6.2.2.2 D-region chemistry
		6.2.3 Quantifying precipitating differential number flux using incoherent scatter radar
		6.2.4 Limitations of the incoherent scatter radar measurements
	6.3 Review of incoherent scatter radar observations of 10–100keV phenomena
		6.3.1 Auroral substorm
		6.3.2 Pulsating aurorae
		6.3.3 Other ISR observations of energetic precipitation
	6.4 D-region incoherent scatter radar mode
	6.5 PFISR observations
		6.5.1 Events summary
		6.5.2 Example event: January 13, 2015
	6.6 Outlook
	6.7 Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
7 Atmospheric effects and signatures of high-energy electron precipitation
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Effects of energetic precipitation in the atmosphere
		7.2.1 Energy deposition and ionization
		7.2.2 Bremsstrahlung
		7.2.3 Particle backscatter
		7.2.4 Optical emissions
		7.2.5 Chemical effects
	7.3 Precipitation modeling
		7.3.1 Scaling methods
		7.3.2 Monte Carlo techniques
		7.3.3 Electron precipitation Monte Carlo modeling framework
	7.4 Diagnostic techniques
		7.4.1 Space-based measurements
			7.4.1.1 Direct particle measurements
			7.4.1.2 X-ray observations
		7.4.2 Ground-based measurements
			7.4.2.1 Very-low-frequency subionospheric remote sensing
				7.4.2.1.1 Very-low-frequency propagation modeling
			7.4.2.2 Ground-based incoherent scatter radar
			7.4.2.3 Riometers
			7.4.2.4 Optical observations
		7.4.3 Summary of observational techniques
	7.5 Future experiments
		7.5.1 Pitch angle–resolved particle measurements
		7.5.2 X-ray imaging from low-earth orbit
		7.5.3 X-ray imaging from balloons
		7.5.4 Ground-based optical measurements
		7.5.5 D-region imaging by subionospheric very-low-frequency remote sensing
		7.5.6 Multi-instrument campaigns
			7.5.6.1 Transition region explorer
	Acknowledgments
	References
8 Ground-based very-low-frequency radio wave observations of energetic particle precipitation
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Ground-based instruments, including the AARDDVARK network
	8.3 March 27, 2013, case example
	8.4 August 13, 2013, case example
	8.5 May 31, 2013, case example
	8.6 Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
9 Energetic electron precipitation into the atmosphere
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 The direct atmospheric impact of energetic particle precipitation
		9.2.1 Primary processes
		9.2.2 Formation of NO and N(4S)
		9.2.3 Formation of H and OH
		9.2.4 Formation of N2O in the upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere
		9.2.5 Consequences of the NOx and HOx formation: ozone loss
		9.2.6 Observations
		9.2.7 Model experiments
	9.3 The indirect effect of energetic particle precipitation
		9.3.1 Observations
		9.3.2 Model experiments
	9.4 Possible surface climate impacts of energetic electron precipitation
	9.5 Open issues
	9.6 Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index
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