The Design of High Performance Mechatronics: High-Tech Functionality by Multidisciplinary System Integration

Title page......Page 1
Contents......Page 5
Motivation......Page 17
Acknowledgements......Page 19
Summary of the contents......Page 20
Mechatronics in the Dutch high-tech industry......Page 23
Historical background......Page 24
The Video Long-play Disk (VLP)......Page 25
Signal encoding and read-out principle......Page 26
The Compact Disc and its family members......Page 28
The Silicon Repeater......Page 31
IC manufacturing process......Page 32
The accurate wafer stage......Page 35
The impact of mechatronics on our world......Page 38
Definition and international positioning......Page 39
Cultural differences in mechatronics......Page 40
Focus on precision-controlled motion......Page 43
Systems engineering and design......Page 44
Definitions and V-model......Page 45
The product creation process......Page 48
Requirement budgeting......Page 50
Roadmapping......Page 51
Design methodology......Page 53
Concurrent engineering......Page 54
Modular design and platforms......Page 56
Electricity and frequency......Page 59
Electric field......Page 60
Potential difference......Page 62
Electric field in an electric element......Page 64
Voltage source......Page 65
Electric power......Page 67
Ohm's law......Page 68
Practical values and summary......Page 69
Variability of electric signals......Page 70
The concept of frequency......Page 71
Random signals or noise......Page 74
Power of alternating signals......Page 75
Representation in the complex plane......Page 76
Mechanical and acoustic waves......Page 79
Electromagnetic waves......Page 81
Transferred energy and amplitude......Page 82
Reflection of waves......Page 83
Standing waves......Page 85
Fourier transform......Page 87
Triangle waveform......Page 89
Sawtooth waveform......Page 90
Square waveform......Page 91
Fourier analysis of non-periodic signals......Page 92
Laplace transform......Page 94
Step response......Page 96
Impulse response......Page 98
Frequency response......Page 100
Bode-plot......Page 101
Nyquist plot......Page 105
Introduction......Page 107
Stiffness......Page 109
Importance of stiffness for precision......Page 110
Active stiffness......Page 114
Compliance of dynamic elements......Page 117
Combining dynamic elements......Page 118
Transfer functions of the compliance......Page 123
Damped mass-spring system......Page 124
Critical damping and definition of zeta......Page 128
Quality-factor Q......Page 132
Behaviour around the natural frequency......Page 134
Transmissibility of a damped mass-spring system......Page 136
Multi-body dynamics and eigenmodes......Page 140
Analytical description......Page 141
Multiplicative expression......Page 143
Effect of different mass ratios......Page 144
The additive method with eigenmodes......Page 147
Multiple eigenmodes and modal analysis......Page 151
Location of actuators and sensors......Page 153
Summary......Page 157
Introduction......Page 159
A walk around the control loop......Page 160
Controlling unstable mechanical systems......Page 162
Creating instability by active control......Page 163
The zeros......Page 164
Properties of feedforward control......Page 165
Properties of feedback control......Page 168
Model based open-loop control......Page 171
Input-shaping......Page 174
Adaptive feedforward control......Page 177
PID feedback control......Page 178
PD-control of a Compact-Disc player......Page 179
Proportional feedback......Page 180
Proportional-differential feedback......Page 183
Limiting the differentiating action......Page 185
Sensitivity functions of feedback control......Page 189
Stability and robustness in feedback control......Page 192
PID-control of a mass-spring system......Page 196
P-control......Page 197
D-control......Page 198
I-control......Page 199
PID-control of a magnetic bearing......Page 204
Eigenmodes above the desired bandwidth......Page 209
"Optimal" PID control......Page 214
Open-loop and closed-loop......Page 215
State-space control representation......Page 217
State-space in relation to motion control......Page 218
Damped mass-spring system......Page 220
PID-control feedback......Page 222
State feedback......Page 224
System Identification......Page 226
State estimation......Page 227
Additional remarks on state-space control......Page 229
Limitations of linear feedback control......Page 231
Conclusions on motion control......Page 236
Electromechanic actuators......Page 237
History on magnetism......Page 239
Maxwell equations......Page 240
Magnetism caused by electric current......Page 244
Hopkinson's law......Page 247
Ferromagnetic materials......Page 250
Coil with ferromagnetic yoke......Page 251
Magnetisation curve......Page 252
Permanent magnets......Page 253
Creating a magnetic field in an air-gap......Page 257
Flat magnets to reduce stray flux......Page 261
Low cost loudspeaker magnet configuration......Page 263
Lorentz force......Page 265
Improving the force of a Lorentz actuator......Page 269
Position dependency of the Lorentz force......Page 270
Over-hung and under-hung coil......Page 272
Electronic commutation......Page 273
three-phase electronic control......Page 275
Figure of merit of a Lorentz actuator......Page 276
Reluctance force in Lorentz actuator......Page 279
Eddy-current ring......Page 280
Ironless stator......Page 281
Analytical derivation of the reluctance force......Page 282
Variable reluctance actuator......Page 286
Electromagnetic relay......Page 288
Force exerted by a magnetic field......Page 289
Double variable reluctance actuator......Page 290
Combining two sources of magnetic flux......Page 293
Hybrid force calculation......Page 295
Magnetic bearings......Page 298
Dynamic effects of self-inductance......Page 301
Limitation of the "jerk"......Page 303
Damping caused by source impedance......Page 304
Comparison of the actuation principles......Page 307
Standard coil dimension for the comparison......Page 308
Force of the reluctance actuator......Page 310
Dynamic differences......Page 311
Moving mass......Page 312
Intermezzo: electric transformers......Page 313
Ideal transformer......Page 314
Real transformer......Page 316
Piezoelectricity......Page 318
Poling......Page 319
Transducer models......Page 320
Creep......Page 323
Hysteresis......Page 324
Aging......Page 325
Piezo-stiffness......Page 326
Actuator types......Page 327
Actuator integration......Page 329
Mechanical amplification......Page 330
Multiple directions by stacking......Page 331
Charge vs. voltage control......Page 333
Self-sensing actuation......Page 334
Analogue electronics in mechatronic systems......Page 337
Voltage source......Page 339
Current source......Page 340
Theorem of Norton and Thevenin......Page 341
Kirchhoff's laws......Page 342
Impedances in series or parallel......Page 343
Voltage divider......Page 344
Maximum power of a real voltage source......Page 346
Resistors......Page 348
Capacitors......Page 350
Inductors......Page 355
Passive first-order RC-filters......Page 357
Passive higher-order RC-filters......Page 360
Passive LCR-filters......Page 362
Mechanical-electrical dynamic analogy......Page 368
Active electronics......Page 372
Basic discrete semiconductors......Page 373
Semiconductor diode......Page 376
Bipolar transistors......Page 379
MOSFET......Page 381
One transistor amplifiers......Page 383
Emitter follower......Page 384
Voltage amplifier......Page 386
Differential amplifier......Page 389
Basic operational amplifier design......Page 392
Operational amplifier with feedback......Page 394
Design rules......Page 395
Non-inverting amplifier......Page 396
Inverting amplifier......Page 398
Adding and subtracting signals......Page 399
Transimpedance amplifier......Page 401
Transconductance amplifier......Page 403
Integrator and first-order low-pass filter......Page 405
Differentiator and first-order high-pass filter......Page 407
Analogue PID controller......Page 409
Transfer function......Page 410
High speed PID control......Page 412
Higher-order electronic filters......Page 413
Second-order low-pass filter......Page 414
Different types of active filters......Page 415
Dynamic limitations......Page 417
Limitations on the inputs......Page 423
Power supply and output limitations......Page 426
Closing remarks on low-power electronics......Page 427
Power amplifiers......Page 429
General properties of power amplifiers......Page 430
Linear power amplifiers......Page 433
High output impedance amplifiers......Page 435
Dynamic loads, four-quadrant operation......Page 439
First example amplifier......Page 441
Power MOSFET, a fast high-power switch......Page 444
Pulse-width modulation......Page 446
High-power output stage......Page 450
Driving the power MOSFETs......Page 454
Charge-pumping......Page 456
Dual-ended configuration......Page 457
Output filter......Page 459
Resonant-mode power amplifiers......Page 460
Switching sequence of the output stage......Page 462
Three-phase amplifiers......Page 466
Concept of three-phase amplifier......Page 467
Three-phase switching power stages......Page 468
Some last remarks on electronics......Page 469
Optics in mechatronic systems......Page 471
Properties of light and light sources......Page 473
Light generation by thermal radiation......Page 474
Photons by electron energy state variation......Page 475
Light emitting diodes......Page 477
Laser as an ideal light source......Page 478
Useful power from a light source......Page 482
Radiance......Page 483
Etendue......Page 486
Reflection and refraction according to the least time......Page 487
Partial reflection and refraction......Page 491
Concept of wavefront......Page 492
A wavefront is not real......Page 493
Imaging with refractive lens elements......Page 495
Sign conventions......Page 497
Real lens elements......Page 498
Magnification......Page 501
Spherical aberration......Page 503
Astigmatism......Page 505
Geometric and chromatic aberrations......Page 507
Combining multiple optical elements......Page 509
Combining two positive lenses......Page 510
Aperture stop and pupil......Page 513
Telecentricity......Page 515
Pupil in a telecentric system......Page 516
Practical applications and constraints......Page 517
Polarisation......Page 519
Birefringence......Page 521
Interference......Page 523
Fabry-Perot interferometer......Page 525
Diffraction......Page 527
Amplitude gratings......Page 528
Phase gratings......Page 530
Imaging quality based on diffraction......Page 537
Numerical aperture and f-number......Page 541
Depth of focus......Page 544
Thermal effects in optical imaging systems......Page 547
Correcting the wavefront......Page 549
Zernike modes......Page 550
Adaptive optics as correction mechanism......Page 554
Principle of operation......Page 555
Measurement in mechatronic systems......Page 559
Errors in measurement systems, uncertainty......Page 561
The ultimate in uncertainty......Page 563
Functional model of a measurement system element......Page 564
Error statistics in repeated measurements......Page 566
The normal distribution......Page 567
Combining different error sources......Page 569
Power spectral density and cumulative power......Page 570
Cumulative amplitude......Page 572
Sources of noise and disturbances......Page 573
Electronic noise......Page 574
Using noise data from data-sheets......Page 576
Sensitive signals in measurement systems......Page 578
Sensing element......Page 579
Converting an impedance into an electric signal......Page 580
Wheatstone bridge......Page 581
Magnetic disturbances......Page 587
Capacitive disturbances......Page 590
Ground loops......Page 591
Instrumentation amplifier......Page 593
Filtering and modulation......Page 596
AM with square wave carrier......Page 597
AM with sinusoidal carrier......Page 598
Schmitt trigger......Page 601
Analogue-to-Digital conversion......Page 602
Gray code......Page 603
Sampling of analogue values......Page 605
Nyquist-Shannon theorem......Page 606
Analogue-to-digital converters......Page 609
Dual-slope ADC......Page 611
Successive-approximation ADC......Page 612
Delta-Sigma ADC......Page 615
Characteristic impedance......Page 618
Non-galvanic connection......Page 620
Optical sensors......Page 621
Position sensitive detectors......Page 622
Optical deflectometer......Page 625
Capacitive position sensors......Page 627
Linearising by differential measurement......Page 628
Accuracy limits and improvements......Page 629
Sensing to conductive moving plate......Page 632
Inductive position sensors......Page 633
Linear variable differential transformer......Page 635
Eddy-current sensors......Page 637
Measurement of force and strain......Page 639
Strain gages......Page 640
Fibre Bragg grating strain measurement......Page 642
Velocity measurement......Page 645
Geophone......Page 646
Closed-loop feedback accelerometer......Page 650
Piezoelectric accelerometer......Page 652
MEMS accelerometer......Page 660
Optical long-range incremental position sensors......Page 663
Linear optical encoders......Page 664
Interpolation......Page 668
Vernier resolution enhancement......Page 670
Interferometric optical encoder......Page 672
Concluding remarks on linear encoders......Page 676
Laser interferometer measurement systems......Page 678
Homodyne distance interferometry......Page 679
Heterodyne distance interferometry......Page 684
Measurement uncertainty......Page 694
Different configurations......Page 700
Mechanical aspects......Page 706
Abbe error......Page 707
Introduction......Page 709
The wafer scanner......Page 711
Requirements on precision......Page 713
Dynamic architecture......Page 717
Balance masses......Page 718
Vibration isolation......Page 720
Eigendynamics of the sensitive parts......Page 723
Zero stiffness stage actuation......Page 727
Wafer stepper long-range Lorentz actuator......Page 728
Multi-axis positioning......Page 731
Long- and short-stroke actuation......Page 732
Full magnetic levitation......Page 735
Limits in acceleration of reticle stage......Page 736
Position measurement......Page 738
The alignment sensor......Page 740
Keeping the wafer in focus......Page 742
Dual-stage measurement and exposure......Page 744
Long-range incremental measurement system......Page 745
Real-time metrology loop......Page 746
Motion control......Page 749
Feedforward and feedback control......Page 750
The mass dilemma......Page 752
Main design rules for precision......Page 753
Recommended other books......Page 755
Nomenclature and abbreviations......Page 759
Index......Page 768