The Cultural Nature of Human Development

Contents......Page 10
1 Orienting Concepts and Ways of Understanding the Cultural Nature of Human Development......Page 18
Looking for Cultural Regularities......Page 22
One Set of Patterns: Children's Age-Grading and Segregation from Community Endeavors or Participation in Mature Activities......Page 23
Other Patterns......Page 24
Orienting Concepts for Understanding Cultural Processes......Page 25
Moving Beyond Initial Assumptions......Page 28
Beyond Ethnocentrism and Deficit Models......Page 30
Separating Value Judgments from Explanations......Page 32
Ideas of Linear Cultural Evolution......Page 33
Moving Beyond Assumptions of a Single Goal of Human Development......Page 35
Learning through Insider/Outsider Communication......Page 39
Outsiders' Position......Page 41
Insiders' Position......Page 43
Moving between Local and Global Understandings......Page 44
Revising Understanding in Derived Etic Approaches......Page 45
The Meaning of the "Same" Situation across Communities......Page 47
2 Development as Transformation of Participation in Cultural Activities......Page 52
A Logical Puzzle for Researchers......Page 53
An Example: "We always speak only of what we see"......Page 54
Researchers Questioning Assumptions......Page 56
Concepts Relating Cultural and Individual Development......Page 57
Whiting and Whiting's Psycho-Cultural Model......Page 58
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System......Page 59
Descendents......Page 63
Issues in Diagramming the Relation of Individual and Cultural Processes......Page 64
Sociocultural-Historical Theory......Page 65
Development as Transformation of Participation in Sociocultural Activity......Page 67
Humans Are Biologically Cultural......Page 78
Prepared Learning by Infants and Young Children......Page 82
Where Do Gender Differences Come From?......Page 86
Culture as a Categorical Property of Individuals versus a Process of Participation in Dynamically Related Cultural Communities......Page 92
The Case of Middle-Class European American Cultural Communities......Page 100
Conceiving of Communities across Generations......Page 104
4 Child Rearing in Families and Communities......Page 117
Family Composition and Governments......Page 119
Cultural Strategies for Child Survival and Care......Page 121
Maternal Attachment under Severe Conditions......Page 126
Infants' Security of Attachment......Page 129
Attachment to Whom?......Page 131
Extended Families......Page 133
Differentiation of Caregiving, Companion, and Socializing Roles......Page 136
Sibling Caregiving and Peer Relations......Page 137
The Community as Caregiver......Page 143
Access to Mature Community Activities......Page 148
"Pitching in" from Early Childhood......Page 150
Excluding Children and Youth from Labor—and from Productive Roles......Page 153
Adults "Preparing" Children or Children Joining Adults......Page 155
Engaging in Groups or Dyads......Page 156
Infant Orientation: Face-to-Face with Caregiver versus Oriented to the Group......Page 157
Dyadic versus Group Prototypes for Social Relations......Page 159
Dyadic versus Multiparty Group Relations in Schooling......Page 162
5 Developmental Transitions in Individuals' Roles in Their Communities......Page 165
Age as a Cultural Metric for Development......Page 167
Developmental Transitions Marking Change in Relation to the Community......Page 172
Rates of Passing Developmental "Milestones"......Page 174
Age Timing of Learning......Page 175
Mental Testing......Page 176
Development as a Racetrack......Page 177
According Infants a Unique Social Status......Page 178
Contrasting Treatment of Toddlers and Older Siblings......Page 179
Continuities and Discontinuities across Early Childhood......Page 180
Responsible Roles in Childhood......Page 183
Onset of Responsibility at Age 5 to 7?......Page 184
Maturation and Experience......Page 185
Adolescence as a Special Stage......Page 186
Initiation to Manhood and Womanhood......Page 189
Marriage and Parenthood as Markers of Adulthood......Page 191
Midlife in Relation to Maturation of the Next Generation......Page 194
Gender Roles......Page 196
The Centrality of Child Rearing and Household Work in Gender Role Specializations......Page 198
Sociohistorical Changes over Millennia in Mothers' and Fathers' Roles......Page 199
Sociohistorical Changes in Recent Centuries in U.S. Mothers' and Fathers' Roles......Page 201
Occupational Roles and Power of Men and Women......Page 205
Gender and Social Relations......Page 207
6 Interdependence and Autonomy......Page 209
Sleeping "Independently"......Page 210
Social Relations in Cosleeping......Page 212
Independence versus Interdependence with Autonomy......Page 215
Individual Freedom of Choice in an Interdependent System......Page 217
Learning to Cooperate, with Freedom of Choice......Page 218
Adult-Child Cooperation and Control......Page 222
Parental Discipline......Page 223
Teachers' Discipline......Page 226
Teasing and Shaming as Indirect Forms of Social Control......Page 232
Moral Reasoning......Page 236
Morality as Individual Rights or Harmonious Social Order......Page 237
Learning the Local Moral Order......Page 239
Mandatory and Discretionary Concepts in Moral Codes......Page 240
Cooperation and Competition......Page 242
Cooperative versus Competitive Behavior in Games......Page 243
Schooling and Competition......Page 244
7 Thinking with the Tools and Institutions of Culture......Page 251
Specific Contexts Rather Than General Ability: Piaget around the World......Page 253
Schooling Practices in Cognitive Tests: Classification and Memory......Page 256
Classification......Page 257
Memory......Page 258
Cultural Values of Intelligence and Maturity......Page 261
Familiarity with the Interpersonal Relations used in Tests......Page 262
Varying Definitions of Intelligence and Maturity......Page 264
Generalizing Experience from One Situation to Another......Page 268
Learning to Fit Approaches Flexibly to Circumstances......Page 270
Literacy......Page 273
Mathematics......Page 276
Other Conceptual Systems......Page 281
Distributed Cognition in the Use of Cultural Tools for Thinking......Page 285
Cognition beyond the Skull......Page 286
Collaboration in Thinking across Time and Space......Page 287
Collaboration Hidden in the Design of Cognitive Tools and Procedures......Page 289
An Example: Sociocultural Development in Writing Technologies and Techniques......Page 291
Crediting the Cultural Tools and Practices We Think With......Page 293
8 Learning through Guided Participation in Cultural Endeavors......Page 297
Mutual Bridging of Meanings......Page 300
Mutual Structuring of Participation......Page 302
Distinctive Forms of Guided Participation......Page 316
Academic Lessons in the Family......Page 317
Talk or Taciturnity, Gesture, and Gaze......Page 325
Intent Participation in Community Activities......Page 332
9 Cultural Change and Relations among Communities......Page 342
Living the Traditions of Multiple Communities......Page 344
Conflict among Cultural Groups......Page 346
Transformations through Cultural Contact across Human History......Page 349
An Individual's Experience of Uprooting Culture Contact......Page 350
Community Changes through Recent Cultural Contacts......Page 352
Western Schooling as a Locus of Culture Change......Page 355
Schooling as a Foreign Mission......Page 357
Schooling as a Colonial Tool......Page 359
Schooling as a Tool of U.S. Western Expansion......Page 361
The Persistence of Traditional Ways in Changing Cultural Systems......Page 362
Contrasting Ideas of Life Success......Page 365
Intervention in Cultural Organization of Community Life......Page 367
Dynamic Cultural Processes: Building on More Than One Way......Page 370
Learning New Ways and Keeping Cultural Traditions in Communities Where Schooling Has Not Been Prevalent......Page 371
Immigrant Families Borrowing New Practices to Build on Cultural Traditions......Page 373
Learning New Ways and Keeping Cultural Traditions in Communities Where Schooling Has Been Central......Page 375
Cultural Variety as an Opportunity for Learning—for Individuals and Communities......Page 376
The Creative Process of Learning from Cultural Variation......Page 377
A Few Regularities......Page 381
Concluding with a Return to the Orienting Concepts......Page 382
References......Page 386
Credits......Page 428
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