The Climate Connection: Climate Change and Modern Human Evolution

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Foreword......Page 11
Preface......Page 17
Acknowledgements......Page 19
1.1 The climate connection......Page 21
1.2 Earth’s changing climate......Page 22
1.3 Climate and humans......Page 25
1.4 Climate and species dominance......Page 27
1.5 What can be learned from evolutionary history?......Page 29
1.6 Back to the future......Page 31
Notes......Page 32
Part I: Early human history......Page 33
2.1 Introduction......Page 35
2.2.1 Where and when did ‘modern’ humans (Homo sapiens) first appear?......Page 39
2.2.2.1 Adaptation and adaptability......Page 42
2.2.3 Morphology......Page 44
2.2.4.1 Brain size......Page 47
2.2.4.2 Brain structure and development......Page 50
2.2.5 Genetics......Page 51
2.2.6 Stone tools and art......Page 54
2.3 Conclusion......Page 57
Notes......Page 58
3.1 Introduction......Page 59
3.2 Interpreting behaviour from the archaeological record......Page 61
3.3.1 The early Stone Age of Africa including the Oldowan and the Acheulean......Page 66
3.3.2 Middle Palaeolithic technologies......Page 68
3.3.3 Upper Palaeolithic and late Stone Age technologies......Page 69
3.4.1 The European Neanderthals or an influx of nonocal modern humans?......Page 72
3.4.2 The influence of the environment and natural selection......Page 74
3.4.3 Cautionary note on the gene-determination of human behaviour......Page 75
3.4.4 Contrasts between Darwinistic and emergentistic interpretations of human behaviour......Page 78
3.5 Language and foresight......Page 79
3.6 General intelligence or cognitive capacities......Page 82
3.6.1 Stress and leisure......Page 85
3.6.2 Transmission of learned behaviour and the demise of the Neanderthals......Page 86
3.7 The bigger picture......Page 87
3.8 Corollary on social stratification......Page 91
Notes......Page 97
4.1 Introduction......Page 99
4.2 Out of Africa – population expansions and bottlenecks......Page 100
4.2.2 Multi-regional evolution hypothesis......Page 104
4.2.3 Hybrid theories......Page 105
4.2.4 The role of environment and climate in early hominin dispersals......Page 107
4.2.5 Genetic evidence of behaviourally modern human dispersals......Page 109
4.3 The Middle East......Page 111
4.4 Europe......Page 115
4.5.1 Introduction......Page 121
4.5.2 India and Pakistan......Page 123
4.5.3 China......Page 125
4.5.4 Thailand, Burma, Laos, Vietnam, Korea......Page 129
4.5.5 Java, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines......Page 130
4.5.6 Japan......Page 133
4.5.7 Siberia and the Russian Far East......Page 134
4.6 Australia and New Guinea......Page 136
4.7 The Americas......Page 140
4.7.1 Other routes......Page 148
4.7.2 Genetic evidence......Page 150
4.7.3 A different perspective......Page 154
4.8 Islands of the Pacific......Page 156
4.9 Concluding thoughts......Page 157
Notes......Page 158
Part II: Climate during the last glacial cycle......Page 159
5.2 Climate change forcing mechanisms......Page 161
5.2.1 Milankovic cycles......Page 162
5.2.2 Impacts of variations in solar radiation......Page 163
5.2.3 Climate forcing by changes in atmospheric composition......Page 165
5.2.4 The oceans’ role in a changing climate......Page 166
5.2.5 Additional natural climate feedback mechanisms......Page 169
5.2.6 Volcanism......Page 171
5.3.1 Proxy indicators......Page 172
5.3.2 Coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation models (GCMs)......Page 174
5.4 Modelling with the UVic Earth system climate model......Page 175
5.5.1 Marine isotope stage 6 glaciation (150 000 to 135 000 years ago)......Page 177
5.5.2 The last glacial cycle......Page 178
5.5.2.1 Marine Isotope Stage 5e – the Eemian interglacial (135 000 to 116 000 years ago)......Page 180
5.5.2.2 Marine isotope stage 5d (116 000 to 110 000 years ago)......Page 181
5.5.2.3 Marine isotope stage 5c (110 000 to 100 000 years ago)......Page 182
5.5.2.5 Marine isotope stage 5a (90 000 to 75 000 years ago)......Page 185
5.5.2.6 Marine isotope stage 4 (75 000 to 60 000 years ago)......Page 187
5.5.2.7 Marine isotope stage 3 (60 000 to 30 000 years ago)......Page 188
5.5.2.8 Marine isotope stage 2 and the last glacial maximum (30 000 to 11 650 years ago)......Page 189
5.5.2.9 The Holocene (11 650 to present or AD 1800)......Page 191
5.5.2.10 The Anthropocene......Page 192
Notes......Page 193
6.1 Introduction......Page 211
6.2 Marine isotope stage 6 – the changing environment of Africa, the birthplace of Homo sapiens......Page 212
6.3.1 The changing climate of Africa......Page 213
6.3.2 The changing vegetation of Africa......Page 215
6.4.2 The changing vegetation of Africa......Page 217
6.5 Marine isotope stage 5c......Page 221
6.5.1 The changing climate of Africa and beyond......Page 222
6.5.2 The changing vegetation of Africa and beyond......Page 223
6.6 Marine isotope stage 5b......Page 225
6.6.2 The changing vegetation of Africa and beyond......Page 226
6.7.1 The impact of a changing climate on global vegetation......Page 229
6.8.1 The impact of a changing climate on global vegetation......Page 230
6.9.1 The impact of a changing climate on global vegetation......Page 231
6.10 Marine isotope stage 2 – the last glacial maximum......Page 235
6.10.1 The impact of a changing climate on global vegetation......Page 236
6.11 The Holocene......Page 239
6.11.1 The impact of a changing climate on global vegetation......Page 241
6.12 Conclusion......Page 242
Notes......Page 243
Part III: The interaction between climate and humans......Page 245
7.1 Introduction......Page 247
7.2 Marine isotope stage 6 (150 000–135 000 years ago) – its impact on newly emerged modern humans......Page 248
7.3.1 Marine isotope stage 5e (135 000–116 000 years ago) – Homo sapiens’ response to the Eemian interglacial......Page 249
7.3.2 Marine isotope stage 5d (116 000–110 000 years ago) – the migration of modern humans out of Africa......Page 250
7.3.3 Marine isotope stage 5c (110 000–100 000 years ago) – expanding deserts and coastal refugia......Page 254
7.3.4 Marine isotope stage 5b (100 000–90 000 years ago) – changing conditions in a mild glacial interval......Page 255
7.3.5 Marine isotope stage 5a (90 000–75 000 years ago) – Homo sp. respond to a changing global environment......Page 256
7.3.6 Marine isotope stage 4 (75 000–60 000 years ago) – modern humans contend with expanding ice sheets and a polar desert......Page 257
7.3.7 Marine isotope stage 3 (60 000–30 000 years ago) – population expansion for Homo sapiens and extinction for Neanderthals......Page 259
7.3.8 Marine isotope stage 2 (30 000–11 650 years ago) – the last ice age and large-scale migrations and human behavioural change......Page 262
7.4 The Holocene (11 650-D 1800) – population expansion and the rise of agriculture and domestication......Page 265
7.5 Conclusion......Page 268
Notes......Page 270
8.1 Introduction......Page 271
8.2.1 Dogs and cats......Page 272
8.2.2 Population expansion and the exhaustion of resources......Page 273
8.2.3 Cereals......Page 274
8.2.4 Animal domestication......Page 275
8.2.6 Distribution of plants and animals from their original domestication areas......Page 276
8.3.1 Milankovic cycles; albedo; greenhouse gases......Page 281
8.3.3 Volcanism......Page 282
8.3.4 The Lake Agassiz meltwater effect and the Younger Dryas......Page 283
8.3.5 The Laurentide meltwater effect......Page 284
8.3.6 El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events and droughts......Page 286
8.4.1 Mesopotamia, Africa and Egypt......Page 288
8.4.2 The Indus-Sarasvati region......Page 293
8.4.3 Meso and South America......Page 294
8.4.4 China......Page 297
8.4.5 Europe......Page 298
8.5 Conclusions......Page 301
Notes......Page 304
9.1 What then of the effects of climate change?......Page 305
9.1.1 The climate of today......Page 306
9.1.2 What tomorrow brings......Page 309
9.1.2.1 Recent updates......Page 311
9.1.2.2 Tipping elements......Page 316
9.2.1 Past and future human evolution......Page 317
9.2.1.1 Human developmental evolution......Page 318
9.2.2 Physiological and behavioural adaptability......Page 319
9.2.3 The clash between humankind and nature......Page 321
9.3 The climate connection: human vulnerability to rapid climate change and adaptability......Page 323
9.3.1 Recognizing past efforts......Page 324
9.3.2 Future efforts......Page 329
9.3.3 Forewarning: the vulnerability of complex societies......Page 335
Notes......Page 337
Appendices: The biological background to the story of evolution......Page 339
A.1.1 Lamarckism......Page 341
A.1.3 Causal theory......Page 343
A.1.4 Neo-Lamarckism......Page 344
A.1.5 Neo-Darwinism and the modern synthesis......Page 345
A.1.6 Saltatory or gradual evolution......Page 346
A.1.7 Adaptation and adaptability......Page 349
A.2 Emergence theory......Page 350
A.3 Contrasts between the selectionist and emergentist views of evolution......Page 352
Notes......Page 353
B.2 Epigenesis and epigenetics......Page 355
B.3 Epigenetic modes......Page 356
B.4 Neoteny and foetalization in humans......Page 358
B.5 The role of neural crest and nerve cells......Page 359
B.6 Bipedalism......Page 360
B.7 Genetic assimilation......Page 361
B.9 Humanness......Page 362
B.10 Epigenetic algorithms......Page 365
B.12 Evolutionary changes through changes in methylation patterns......Page 366
B.13 Self-amplifying genomic changes as evolutionary processes......Page 367
Notes......Page 370
C.1 Introduction......Page 371
C.2 Homeostasis......Page 372
C.3 The homeostasis of placental mammals......Page 373
C.4 How placental physiology relates to la vie libre......Page 375
C.5 How la vie libre relates to diversifying evolution in placental mammals......Page 376
C.6 The history of physiological evolution and environment......Page 378
C.6.1 Dilution physiogenesis......Page 379
C.6.3 Gravity physiogenesis......Page 380
C.6.4 The emergence of thermoregulation......Page 381
C.7 Environment, diet and development......Page 382
C.8 The homeostasis paradox......Page 383
C.9 The primate lineage: neurophysiology; neocortical expansion; foetalization of hominids......Page 384
C.10 Comparison of the adaptability and adaptations of humans and other placentals: generalization vs. specialization......Page 386
C.11 Adaptability or variability?......Page 387
C.12 Summary of environmental impacts on humans – from molecules to mayhem......Page 389
Notes......Page 391
References......Page 393
Index......Page 443