The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 11
Contributors......Page 13
What Is Thinking?......Page 17
A Capsule History......Page 19
Overview of the Handbook......Page 21
Part V: Cognitive and Neural Constraints on Human Thought......Page 22
Examples of Chapter Assignments for a Variety of Courses......Page 23
References......Page 25
Part I THE NATURE OF HUMAN CONCEPTS......Page 27
Introduction......Page 29
Geometric Models and Multidimensional Scaling......Page 31
Featural Models......Page 33
Alignment-Based Models......Page 40
Transformational Models......Page 42
Is Similarity Flexible Enough to Provide Useful Explanations of Cognition?......Page 44
Is Similarity Too Flexible to Provide Useful Explanations of Cognition?......Page 45
Should “Similarity” Even Be a Field of Study Within Cognitive Science?......Page 46
References......Page 47
Introduction......Page 53
Functions of Concepts......Page 54
Early Theories of Semantic Memory......Page 55
Fragmentation of Semantics and Memory......Page 57
Category Learning and Inference......Page 60
Language Functions......Page 64
Theories, Modules, and Psychometaphysics......Page 70
Essentialism and Sortalism......Page 72
Domain Specificity......Page 74
Greater Interactions between Work on Concepts and Psycholinguistic Research......Page 78
References......Page 79
Relational Representations......Page 89
Symbol-Argument-Argument Notation......Page 92
Traditional Connectionist Representations......Page 94
Conjunctive Connectionist Representations......Page 97
Role-Filler Binding by Vector Addition......Page 99
Notes......Page 103
References......Page 104
Part II REASONING......Page 109
CHAPTER 5 the problem of induction......Page 111
Empirical Background......Page 115
Scope of Chapter......Page 117
Similarity-Based Induction......Page 118
Induction as Scientific Methodology......Page 123
The Bag of Tricks......Page 127
Causal Induction......Page 128
References......Page 129
CHAPTER 6 Analogy......Page 133
Psychometric Tradition......Page 134
Metaphor......Page 136
Knowledge Representation......Page 137
Retrieval and Mapping......Page 138
Inference and Relational Generalization......Page 144
Computational Models of Analogy......Page 147
Structure Mapping Engine (SME)......Page 148
Learning and Inference with Schemas and Analogies (LISA)......Page 150
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 152
References......Page 153
The Nature of the Problem and a Historical Review: Is Causality an Inscrutable Fetish or the Cement of the Universe?......Page 159
A Statistical Approach......Page 162
Causal Inference Goes Beyond Covariation Tracking......Page 166
Empirical Findings on Humans and Rats......Page 167
A Causal Network Approach......Page 169
Time and Causal Inference: The Time-Frame of Covariation Assessment......Page 177
Summary and Future Directions......Page 180
References......Page 181
CHAPTER 8 deductive reasoning......Page 185
Rule-Versus Model-Based Accounts of Reasoning......Page 187
Biases in Deductive Reasoning......Page 190
The Deontic Selection Task......Page 192
Biasing Effects of Content and Context......Page 194
Dual-Process Theory......Page 195
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 196
References......Page 197
CHAPTER 9 mental models and thought......Page 201
The History of Mental Models......Page 202
Models and Deduction......Page 203
Experimental Studies of Deductive Reasoning......Page 208
Probabilistic Reasoning......Page 213
Induction and Models......Page 214
Implicit Induction and the Modulation of Models......Page 215
Explicit Induction, Abduction, and the Creation of Explanations......Page 216
References......Page 219
Reasoning......Page 225
Visuospatial......Page 226
Imagery as Internalized Perception......Page 227
Inferences from Observing Motion in Space......Page 232
Mental Spatial Inferences......Page 233
Distortions as Clues to Reasoning......Page 237
Graphics: Elements......Page 241
Graphics: Relations......Page 242
Diagrams for Insight......Page 246
References......Page 248
Part III JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING......Page 257
Introduction......Page 259
Prospect Theory......Page 260
The Framing of Risky Decisions......Page 262
Loss Aversion and the Status Quo......Page 263
Decisional  Conflict......Page 265
Reason-Based Choice......Page 267
Compatibility......Page 268
Separate Versus Comparative Evaluation......Page 269
Repeated Decisions......Page 270
Mental Accounting......Page 271
Temporal Discounting......Page 272
Frames of Mind......Page 273
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 274
References......Page 276
CHAPTER 12 A Model of Heuristic Judgment......Page 283
Attribute Substitution......Page 285
Accessibility and Substitution......Page 286
System 2: The Supervision of Intuitive Judgments......Page 288
Eliciting Representativeness......Page 290
The Representativeness Controversy......Page 292
Making Biases Disappear: A Task for System 2......Page 294
Prototype Heuristics and the Neglect of Extension......Page 297
Scope Neglect in Willingness to Pay......Page 298
Duration Neglect in the Evaluation of Experiences......Page 299
Violations of Dominance......Page 301
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 303
References......Page 304
A Brief History of Motivated Thinking......Page 311
Outcome-Motivated Thinking......Page 312
Influences of Directional Outcome Motivation......Page 313
Influences of Nondirectional Outcome Motivation......Page 316
Limits to Outcome-Motivated Thinking......Page 319
Conclusions on Outcome-Motivated Thinking......Page 321
Strategy-Motivated Thinking......Page 322
Strategic Preferences and Regulatory Fit......Page 325
General Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 326
References......Page 328
Part IV PROBLEM SOLVING AND COMPLEX LEARNING......Page 335
Introduction......Page 337
A Brief History......Page 340
Algorithmic Versus Heuristic Solution Strategies......Page 341
Problem Solving as Search Through a Problem Space......Page 342
Some Conclusions from Research on Problem Solving as Search......Page 345
Overview......Page 346
The Importance of Problem Context......Page 347
The Importance of Solvers\' Knowledge......Page 349
Mathematical Problem Solving......Page 354
Insight Problem Solving Revisited......Page 358
Conclusions and Directions for Future Research......Page 360
References......Page 362
CHAPTER 15 Creativity......Page 367
Pragmatic Approaches......Page 368
The Psychodynamic Approach......Page 369
Psychometric Approaches......Page 370
Cognitive Approaches......Page 372
Social-Personality and Social-Cognitive Approaches......Page 374
Confluence Approaches to the Study of Creativity......Page 375
Alternate Approaches to Understanding Kinds of Creative Contributions......Page 377
References......Page 380
Introduction......Page 387
Size of Knowledge Base......Page 388
Organization......Page 389
Larger Size......Page 392
Denser Connectedness......Page 393
Increased Consistency......Page 396
Finer Grain of Representation......Page 398
Greater Complexity......Page 399
Shifted Vantage Point......Page 400
Discussion......Page 401
The Learning Paradox: Monotonic and Nonmonotonic Change......Page 402
Lack of Computational Power......Page 404
Pathways to Nonmonotonic Change?......Page 405
Toward a Theory of Learning......Page 408
References......Page 409
Background on Production Systems......Page 417
Current Production Systems in Context......Page 420
Organization of the Remainder of the Chapter......Page 421
Choice......Page 422
Summary......Page 424
Analogy......Page 425
Summary......Page 427
Working Memory......Page 428
Summary......Page 430
Categorization......Page 431
Summary......Page 433
Skill Learning......Page 434
Summary......Page 436
Language Learning: Past Tense......Page 437
Summary......Page 439
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 440
References......Page 442
Introduction......Page 447
What Implicit Implies......Page 448
Accessibility and Availability......Page 449
The Implicit/Explicit Continuum......Page 450
Consciousness at Encoding......Page 452
Memory......Page 454
Learning......Page 456
Abstraction and Implicit Thought......Page 458
Perceptual and Conceptual Representations......Page 459
Creativity and Problem Solving......Page 461
References......Page 463
Part V COGNITIVE AND NEURAL CONSTRAINTS ON HUMAN THOUGHT......Page 471
Multiple Memory Systems?......Page 473
A Multi-component Working Memory Model......Page 474
Embedded-Processes Working-Memory Model......Page 478
Reasoning and Working Memory: Using the Task-Interference Paradigm......Page 479
Individual Differences in Working Memory......Page 482
The Where, What, and How of Working Memory and Thought......Page 483
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 485
References......Page 486
Psychological Theories of Deductive Reasoning......Page 491
Relevance and Role of Neurophysiological Data......Page 492
Neuroanatomical Predictions of Cognitive Theories of Reasoning......Page 494
Functional Anatomy of Reasoning......Page 495
Consequences for Cognitive Theories of Reasoning......Page 504
Notes......Page 505
References......Page 506
Introduction......Page 509
Defining Thought Disorder......Page 511
Levelt\'s Model of Normal Speech Production......Page 512
Thought Disorder or Speech Disorder?......Page 514
Overview of Cognitive Models of Thought Disorder......Page 515
Cohen\'s and Braver\'s Model......Page 516
Hemsley\'s and Gray\'s Model......Page 519
Studies of Information Processing Deficits Related to Formal Thought Disorder......Page 522
Ex cogito, Dementia......Page 526
Neural System Abnormalities in Schizophrenia......Page 527
Prefrontal Cortex and Working-Memory Deficits......Page 528
Integrating Cognitive Models and Endophenotypes......Page 530
Future Directions......Page 531
Notes......Page 532
References......Page 533
Part VI ONTOGENY, PHYLOGENY, LANGUAGE, AND CULTURE......Page 543
Early Influences......Page 545
Information Processing Theories......Page 547
Neural Net Models......Page 548
Neural Net Models and Symbolic Processes......Page 551
Dynamic Systems Models......Page 552
Strategy Development......Page 553
Complexity......Page 554
Increased Dimensionality......Page 555
Knowledge and Expertise......Page 556
Reasoning Processes......Page 557
Elementary Concepts......Page 559
Transitivity and Serial Order......Page 560
Classification......Page 561
Scientific Thinking......Page 563
Balance Scale......Page 564
Transition Mechanisms......Page 565
References......Page 566
CHAPTER 23 Mathematical Cognition......Page 575
Kinds of Numbers......Page 576
Numerical Estimation and Reasoning in Animals......Page 578
Numerosity and Duration Are Represented by Comparable Mental Magnitudes......Page 581
Subtracting Durations and Numerosities......Page 582
Dividing Numerosity by Duration......Page 583
Ordering Numerosities......Page 584
The Symbolic Size and Distance Effects......Page 585
Nonverbal Counting in Humans......Page 587
Nonverbal Arithmetic Reasoning in Humans......Page 588
Retrieving Number Facts......Page 590
What is the Form of Mapping from Magnitudes to Mental Magnitudes?......Page 591
Is There a Distinct Representation for Small Numbers?......Page 593
The Development of Verbal Numerical Competence......Page 595
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 598
References......Page 599
CHAPTER 24 Effects of Aging on Reasoning......Page 605
Speed......Page 609
Strategy......Page 610
Working Memory......Page 611
Mediational Models......Page 613
Componential Models......Page 614
Correlated Factor Models......Page 616
Hierarchical Structure Models......Page 618
References......Page 620
CHAPTER 25 Reasoning and Thinking in Nonhuman Primates......Page 623
Travel Strategies......Page 624
Relational Reasoning......Page 625
Sameness-Difference......Page 626
Analogical Reasoning......Page 627
Transitivity......Page 629
Ordinality......Page 630
Conjunctive Negation......Page 631
Counting......Page 632
Summation and Subtraction......Page 633
Conservation......Page 634
Tool Use......Page 635
Perceiving and Judging Physical Events......Page 639
Social Reasoning......Page 641
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 642
References......Page 643
CHAPTER 26 language and thought......Page 649
Language Is Sketchy, Thought Is Rich......Page 652
Use It or Lose It: Language Determines the Categories of Thought......Page 654
Do the Categories of Language Become the Categories of Thought?......Page 656
Thinking for Speaking......Page 657
Objects and Substances......Page 658
Spatial Relationships......Page 660
Motion......Page 661
Spatial Frames of Reference......Page 662
Time......Page 664
Number......Page 665
Orientation......Page 667
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 669
Acknowledgments......Page 670
References......Page 671
Two Paradigms of Thought: Phenomena, Theory, and Methodology......Page 679
The Importance of Ethnography......Page 681
The Level of Social Ideology......Page 682
Who and What Are the Individualists and Collectivists?......Page 684
Thinking about People: Theory of Mind......Page 686
Thinking about Things: Categories, Physical Relations, and Social Relations......Page 690
Cross-Cultural Conflict in What Counts as Thinking......Page 691
Visual Pattern Construction: A Case of Historical Change......Page 692
References......Page 694
Part VII THINKING IN PRACTICE......Page 699
CHAPTER 28 Legal Reasoning......Page 701
Deductive (Rule-Based) Reasoning......Page 702
Analogical (Case-Based) Reasoning......Page 703
Formalism......Page 704
Legal Realism......Page 706
Critical Legal Studies, Law and Economics, and the Law and Society Movement......Page 710
Lack of Opportunity for Empirical Testing......Page 712
Need for an Immediate, Final Decision......Page 713
Categorical Thinking, Lack of Compromise, and Certainty......Page 714
Free Will and the Dispositional Bias......Page 715
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 716
References......Page 717
A Brief History of Research on Scientific Thinking......Page 721
Scientific Thinking as Problem Solving......Page 724
Scientific Thinking as Hypothesis Testing......Page 725
Causal Thinking in Science......Page 726
The Roles of Inductive and Deductive Thinking in the Scientific Mind......Page 728
The Roles of Analogy in Scientific Thinking......Page 729
Conceptual Change in the Scientific Mind......Page 731
The Scientific Brain......Page 732
Scientific Thinking and Science Education......Page 735
Acknowledgments......Page 737
References......Page 738
Early Research on Medical Problem Solving and Reasoning......Page 743
Models of Medical Reasoning......Page 745
Toward a Model of Reasoning in Medicine: Induction, Deduction, and Abduction......Page 746
Forward-Driven and Backward-Driven Reasoning......Page 747
The Role of Similarity in Diagnostic Reasoning......Page 749
Reasoning and the Nature of Medical Knowledge......Page 750
Knowledge Organization and Changes in Directionality......Page 751
Causal Reasoning in Medicine......Page 752
A Cognitive Taxonomy of Medical Errors......Page 754
Reasoning and Decision-Making Mistakes in Medicine......Page 755
Medical Reasoning and Decision Research......Page 756
Reasoning and Medical Education......Page 757
The Impact of Technology on Thinking in Medicine......Page 759
References......Page 761
Implicit Theories of Intelligence......Page 767
History......Page 768
Psychometric Approaches to Intelligence......Page 769
Cognitive Approaches to Intelligence......Page 771
Biological Approaches to Intelligence......Page 774
Contextual Approaches to Intelligence......Page 776
Systems Approaches to Intelligence......Page 778
Improving Intelligence......Page 781
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 782
Acknowledgments......Page 783
CHAPTER 32 Learning to Think: The Challenges of Teaching Thinking......Page 791
The Challenge of Attaining Results......Page 793
The Challenge of Defining Good Thinking......Page 796
Norms and Heuristics......Page 797
Models of Intelligence......Page 798
Models of Human Development......Page 799
What Effect Does a Theory of Good Thinking Have?......Page 800
The Logical Case for Dispositions......Page 801
The Empirical Case for Dispositions......Page 802
Cultivating Thinking Dispositions......Page 803
The Challenge of Transfer......Page 804
The Challenge of Creating Cultures of Thinking......Page 808
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 810
Acknowledgments......Page 812
References......Page 813
Author Index......Page 819
Subject Index......Page 847