The Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics

Frontmatter
	Series information
	Contents
	Figures
	Tables
	Contributors
Knight & Setter: Introduction
	Structure of the Handbook
	Chapter Overview
	Final Remarks
	References
I Segmental Production
	Physiological Foundations (Wrench & Beck)
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Historical Overview
		1.3 Critical Issues
			1.3.1 Central Nervous System (CNS): Cortical
			1.3.2 Central Nervous System: Brainstem
			1.3.3 The Respiratory System
			1.3.4 Larynx Anatomy
			1.3.5 Musculature of the Hyoid and Floor of the Mouth
			1.3.6 Musculature of the Pharynx
			1.3.7 Musculature of the Velum
			1.3.8 Skeletal Framework of the Oral Cavity
			1.3.9 Musculature of the Tongue
				1.3.9.1 Intrinsic Tongue Muscles
				1.3.9.2 Extrinsic Tongue Muscles
			1.3.10 Musculature of the Lower Jaw (Mandible)
			1.3.11 Musculature of the Face and Lips Used in Speech
			1.3.12 Vocal Tract Control
		1.4 Recent Research
		1.4.1 Neuromuscular Compartments
			1.4.1.1 Tongue
			1.4.1.2 Lower Jaw
			1.4.1.3 Lips
		1.4.2 Digital Biomechanical Modelling
		1.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		1.6 Future Directions
		1.7 References
	Vowels (Weckwerth)
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Historical Overview
		2.3 Critical Issues
			2.3.1 Beyond Height–Advancement–Rounding
			2.3.2 Transcription
			2.3.3 Variability and Gradience
			2.3.4 Diachronic Change
		2.4 Recent Research
		2.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		2.6 Future Directions
		2.7 References
			2.7.1 Online Resources
	Consonants (Proctor)
		3.1 Introduction
			3.1.1 Defining the Class of Consonants
			3.1.2 Phonetic Properties of Consonants
		3.2 Historical Overview
		3.3 Critical Issues in Consonantal Phonetics
			3.3.1 Place of Articulation
			3.3.2 Airstream
				3.3.2.1 Glottalic Consonants
					Ejectives
					Implosives
				3.3.2.2 Clicks
			3.3.3 Constriction Degree
				3.3.3.1 Stops
				3.3.3.2 Fricatives
				3.3.3.3 Approximants
			3.3.4 Laryngeal Setting
			3.3.5 Nasality
			3.3.6 Lateralisation
			3.3.7 Articulatory Stiffness and Damping
			3.3.8 Length
			3.3.9 Respiratory Strength
			3.3.10 Complexity Arising from Articulatory Coordination
		3.4 Current Research in Consonantal Phonetics
			3.4.1 Goals of Production
			3.4.2 Status of the Segment
			3.4.3 Temporal Organisation of Consonants
		3.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
			3.5.1 Key References
			3.5.2 Practical Exercises
			3.5.3 Physical Demonstrations
			3.5.4 Phonological Databases
			3.5.5 Enhanced IPA Charts
			3.5.6 Multimedia Resources
		3.6 Future Directions
			3.6.1 New Methods in Instrumental Phonetics
			3.6.2 Large-scale Phonetic Data
			3.6.3 Typologically Incomplete Data
		3.7 References
	Coarticulation (Iskarous & Mooshammer)
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Historical Overview
		4.3 Critical Issues
			4.3.1 Temporal Theories
			4.3.2 Mechanical Theories
		4.4 Current Topics
			4.4.1 Task Dynamics and Articulatory Phonology
			4.4.2 Articulatory Kinematic Models
			4.4.3 Acoustic Kinematics Model
			4.4.4 Exemplar Theories
		4.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		4.6 Future Directions
		4.6 References
	Processes in Connected Speech (Warner)
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Historical Overview
		5.3 Critical Issues
		5.4 Recent Research
			5.4.1 Phonetics of Word-Boundary-Triggered Phonological Processes
				5.4.1.1 r-Insertion or r-Linking
				5.4.1.2 French Liaison
				5.4.1.3 Word-Final Devoicing
				5.4.1.4 More General Acoustic Cues to Word Boundaries
				5.4.1.5 Across-Word-Boundary Regressive Assimilation
			5.4.2 Phonetic Phenomena of Connected Speech Not Specifically at Word Boundaries
				5.4.2.1 Realisations of Consonants in Connected Speech
				5.4.2.2 Realisation of Vowels in Connected Speech
				5.4.2.3 Studies of Specific Segmental Reduction Processes
				5.4.2.4 Syllable Deletions and Other ‘Massive’ Reductions
		5.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		5.6 Future Directions
		Acknowledgements
		5.7 References
II Prosodic Production
	Stress and Rhythm (Cantarutti & Szepek Reed)
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Historical Overview and Critical Issues
			6.2.1 Stress
				6.2.1.1 Phonetic Correlates of Stress
				6.2.1.2 Domains for Stress and Accent
				6.2.1.3 Degrees and Representations of Stress
			6.2.2 Rhythm
				6.2.2.1 Rhythm Classes and Isochrony
				6.2.2.2 Rhythm and Perception
				6.2.2.3 Rhythm as Alternation
		6.3 Recent Research
			6.3.1 Stress across Languages
			6.3.2 Rhythm Classes and Metrics
			6.3.3 Rhythm as an Interactional and Embodied Phenomenon
			6.3.4 Rhythm as a Single- or Cross-Speaker Phenomenon
		6.4 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		6.5 Future Directions
		6.6 References
	Lexical Tone (Lee & Mok)
		7.1 Introduction
			7.1.1 Some Definitions
				7.1.1.1 Tone
				7.1.1.2 Fundamental Frequency vs. Pitch
				7.1.1.3 Contour and Register
				7.1.1.4 Tone Sandhi
			7.1.2 Notation of Tones
		7.2 Historical Overview and Critical Issues
			7.2.1 Acoustic Correlates of Tone
				7.2.1.1 f0 Level
				7.2.1.2 f0 Contour
				7.2.1.3 Phonation Type
				7.2.1.4 Duration
			7.2.2 Contextual Tonal Variation
				7.2.2.1 Phonetic Tonal Variation
					Carryover
					Anticipatory
					Microprosody
					Interaction between Tone and Intonation
				7.2.2.2 Phonological Tonal Variation
		7.3 Current Research
			7.3.1 Acoustic Methodologies
				7.3.1.1 Processing Data
				7.3.1.2 Statistical Methods for f0 Analysis
			7.3.2 Articulatory Methodologies
				7.3.2.1 EGG
				7.3.2.2 EMG
				7.3.2.3 sEMG
				7.3.2.4 Ultrasound
			7.3.3 Recent Topics
				7.3.3.1 Tone Merger
				7.3.3.2 Tone–Melody Correspondence
				7.3.3.3 Music Pitch vs. Tonal Pitch
		7.4 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		7.5 Future Directions
		7.6 References
	Intonation (Warren & Calhoun)
		8.1 Introduction
			8.1.1 Key Concepts
		8.2 Historical Overview
			8.2.1 Intonational Form
			8.2.2 Intonational Meaning
		8.3 Critical Issues
			8.3.1 Issues in the Phonetics of Intonation
			8.3.2 Intonation and Other Linguistic Structures
			8.3.3 Intonation and Language Variation and Change
		8.4 Recent Research
		8.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		8.6 Future Directions
		8.7 References
	Voice Quality (Esling & Moisik)
		9.1 Introduction: Voice Quality as the Habitual Articulatory Background for Speech
		9.2 Historical Overview
		9.3 Critical Issues: The Role of the Larynx in Modelling Voice Quality
		9.4 Recent Research: Experimental Findings in Voice Quality Analysis
		9.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning: Voice Quality in Phonetics Instruction
		9.6 Future Directions
		9.7 References
III Measuring Speech
	Measuring Vowels (Yang)
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Historical Overview
		10.3 Critical Topics
			10.3.1 Measuring Vowel Formants
			10.3.2 Measuring Vowel Durations
			10.3.3 Measuring Vowel Pitch
			10.3.4 Measuring Vowel Intensity
			10.3.5 Measuring Vowel Perception
			10.3.6 Normalising Vowel Formants
		10.4 Recent Research
		10.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		10.6 Future Directions
		10.7 References
	Measuring Consonants (Figueroa & Kim)
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Historical Overview
		11.3 Critical Topics
			11.3.1 Fricatives
				11.3.1.1 What to Measure
				11.3.1.2 Where to Measure
				11.3.1.3 How to Measure
			11.3.2 Stops
				11.3.2.1 Measuring Temporal Aspects of Stops
				11.3.2.2 Measuring the Effects of Stops on Following Vowels
				11.3.2.3 Measuring Spectral Characteristics of Release Bursts
				11.3.2.4 Measuring Some Acoustic Properties of Non-Pulmonic Stops
			11.3.3 Affricates
			11.3.4 Nasals
			11.3.5 Lateral and Central Approximants
			11.3.6 Trills, Taps and Flaps
		11.4 Current Research
		11.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		11.6 Future Directions
		11.7 References
	Measuring Speech Rhythm (Arvaniti)
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Historical Overview
			12.2.1 The Search for Isochrony
			12.2.2 Rhythm Metrics
			12.2.3 Perceptual Experiments on Rhythm Classes
			12.2.4 Cycling
		12.3 Critical Issues
			12.3.1 Issues with the Rhythm Class Typology
			12.3.2 Theoretical Issues with Rhythm Metrics
			12.3.3 Issues with Practice when Using Metrics
			12.3.4 Issues with Perception Paradigms
		12.4 Recent Research
		12.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		12.6 Future Directions
		12.7 References
	Fundamental Frequency and Pitch (Hirst & De Looze)
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Historical Overview
			13.2.1 Pitch Detection and Analysis
			13.2.2 Automatic Models of Pitch
			13.2.3 Pitch Scales
		13.3 Critical Issues
			13.3.1 Direct Observation of Vocal Folds
			13.3.2 Detection from the Acoustic Signal
			13.3.3 Pitch Tracking Errors
			13.3.4 Estimating Optimal Values for Pitch Floor and Ceiling
			13.3.5 The Difference between Pitch and f0
		13.4 Recent Research
			13.4.1 Semitones and Octaves
			13.4.2 The Octave-Median Scale
			13.4.3 The Graphic Representation of Pitch Patterns
		13.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		13.6 Future Directions
		13.7 References
	Observing and Measuring Speech Articulation (Lin)
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Historical Overview
		14.3 Critical Issues
		14.4 Recent Research
			14.4.1 Techniques for Direct Vocal Tract Imaging
			14.4.2 Techniques for Point Tracking
			14.4.3 Indirect Measures
		14.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
			14.5.1 Visual
			14.5.2 Analytic
		14.6 Future Directions
		14.7 References
	Beyond Functional Speech Synthesis (Patel, Meltzner & Toman)
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Historical Overview
		15.3 Critical Topics
			15.3.1 Representing Linguistic and Acoustic Information
			15.3.2 Concatenating the Building Blocks of Speech
			15.3.3 Learning Statistical Patterns of Speech
		15.4 Current Research
			15.4.1 The Role of Big Data in Advanced Speech Synthesis
			15.4.2 Crowdsourced Corpora Collection
			15.4.3 Humanising Speech Synthesis
			15.4.4 Challenges of Voice Building from Crowdsourced Corpora
			15.4.5 Implementation of Pervasive and Mobile Speech Synthesis
		15.5 Best Practices for Teaching and Learning
		15.6 Future Directions
		15.7 References
IV Audition and Perception
	Neurological Foundations of Phonetic Sciences (Wong, Antoniou & Wong)
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Historical Overview
		16.3 Critical Issues
		16.4 Current Research
			16.4.1 Conventional Functional Contrast – Subtraction Method
			16.4.2 Multivariate Pattern Analysis of Functional Data
			16.4.3 Structural Imaging – Voxel-Based Morphometry
			16.4.4 Imaging Connectivity – Diffusion Tensor Imaging
			16.4.5 Multimodality Theory-Driven Approach
			16.4.6 Other Topics
				16.4.6.1 Subcortical Processes
				16.4.6.2 Bilingual Brain
				16.4.6.3 Speech Learning
				16.4.6.4 Ageing Brain
		16.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		16.6 Future Directions
		16.7 References
	Psycholinguistic Aspects (Sumner & Kim)
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Historical Overview
		17.3 Critical Issues
			17.3.1 Patterns, Experience and Speech Integrity
			17.3.2 Memory
		17.4 Recent Research
			17.4.1 Phonetically Cued Social Information Modulating Spoken Word Recognition
			17.4.2 Richness of Memory of Spoken Words
		17.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		17.6 Future Directions
		17.7 References
	Phonetics and Eye-Tracking (Reinisch & Mitterer)
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Historical Overview
		18.3 Critical Issues
		18.4 Recent Research
			18.4.1 Segmental Processing: Cue Uptake, Context Effects and Reduced Speech
			18.4.2 Suprasegmental Processing
		18.4.3 Gaze in Interaction
		18.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		18.6 Future Directions
		18.7 References
	Automatic Speech Recognition by Machines (Siniscalchi & Lee)
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Historical Overview
			19.2.1 Shannon’s Channel Decoding Paradigm for Automatic Speech Recognition
				19.2.1.1 Speech Features
				19.2.1.2 Prior, Posterior and Joint Probabilities
			19.2.2 Automatic Speech Recognition System Design
			19.2.3 Hidden Markov Model
			19.2.4 Top-down versus Bottom-up ASR System Design
		19.3 Critical Issues
		19.4 Current Research
			19.4.1 Automatic Speech Attribute Transcription
			19.4.2 End-to-End Automatic Speech Recognition
		19.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		19.6 Future Directions
		19.7 References
V Applications of Phonetics
	Pedagogical Approaches (Knight, Setter & Whitworth)
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Historical Overview
		20.3 Critical Issues
			20.3.1 Theory
				20.3.1.1 Identifying Threshold Concepts
				20.3.1.2 Using Analogy to Support Theoretical Concepts
				20.3.1.3 Moving from Examples to Problem Solving to Support Theoretical Understanding
				20.3.1.4 Using Visuals to Enhance Theoretical Understanding via Dual-Coding
				20.3.1.5 Supporting Retention of Terminology through Quizzing
			20.3.2 Anatomy
			20.3.3 Ear-Training and Production
			20.3.4 Transcribing Segments
				20.3.4.1 The Processes of Transcription
				20.3.4.2 Characteristics of the Listener
				20.3.4.3 Characteristics of the Item to Be Transcribed
				20.3.4.4 Characteristics of the Presentation
				20.3.4.5 Self-Directed Activities to Enhance Transcription
				20.3.4.6 Maintenance of Transcription Skills
			20.3.5 Transcribing Prosodic Features
				20.3.5.1 Stress and Rhythm
				20.3.5.2 Intonation
			20.3.6 Acoustics
		20.4 Current Research
		20.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		20.6 Future Directions
		20.7 References
	Pronunciation Teaching (Setter & Makino)
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Historical Overview
			21.2.1 IPA and Phonetics Pedagogy
		21.3 Critical Issues
			21.3.1 Accents and Models
			21.3.2 Deciding What to Teach: Phonetic Aspects
			21.3.3 Teacher Education
		21.4 Recent Research
			21.4.1 The Speech Learning and Perceptual Assimilation Models
			21.4.2 High Variability Phonetic Training
			21.4.3 Classroom-Based Approaches
			21.4.4 Audiovisual and Technological Methods
		21.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
			21.5.1 Intonation: The British School
			21.5.2 Discourse Intonation
		21.6 Future Directions
		21.7 References
	Sociophonetics (Drager & Kettig)
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Historical Overview
		22.3 Critical Issues
			22.3.1 Beyond Static Social Categories
			22.3.2 Beyond Monolingual English Speakers
			22.3.3 Beyond Impressionistic Analyses and Vowel Formants
			22.3.4 Beyond Production
			22.3.5 Beyond Description
		22.4 Current Research
			22.4.1 Methods to Examine Production
				22.4.1.1 Corpus-based Variationist Sociolinguistics
				22.4.1.2 Surveys
				22.4.1.3 Ethnography
				22.4.1.4 Techniques for Studying Speech Accommodation
			22.4.2 Methods to Examine Perception
				22.4.2.1 Identification Tasks
				22.4.2.2 Lexical Decision Tasks
				22.4.2.3 The Matched Guise Technique
			22.4.3 Statistics for Sociophonetics
		22.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		22.6 Future Directions
			22.6.1 Articulatory Measurement Techniques
			22.6.2 Visual-World Paradigm
		22.7 References
	Developmental Phonetics of Speech Production (Rose, McAllister & Inkelas)
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Historical Overview
		23.3 Critical Issues
			23.3.1 Developmental Morphology of the Vocal Tract
			23.3.2 Motor-Control Factors
			23.3.2.1 Between-Articulator Differentiation
			23.3.2.2 Within-Articulator Differentiation
		23.4 Current Research
			23.4.1 Developmental Phonological Patterns
			23.4.2 Examples of Phonetically Influenced Patterns in Child Phonology
				23.4.2.1 Place Changes
				23.4.2.2 Manner Changes
				23.4.2.3 Voicing Changes
				23.4.2.4 Assimilatory Changes
				23.4.2.5 Deletions
			23.4.3 Competence, Performance, or Somewhere in Between?
			23.4.4 How Do Motor Influences Make Their Way into the Grammar?
				23.4.4.1 Lexical Selection, Avoidance and Vocal Motor Schemes
				23.4.4.2 Upward Propagation of Motor Influences in an Emergentist Model of Phonology
			23.4.5 Phonetic Gradience in Child Phonology
				23.4.5.1 Covert Contrast
				23.4.5.2 Prevalence of Covert Contrast
				23.4.5.3 Reinterpretation of Covert Contrast
		23.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
			23.5.1 Data Preparation
			23.5.2 Data Analysis
		23.6 Future Directions
		23.7 References
	Clinical Phonetics (Moreland)
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Historical Overview
		24.3 Critical Issues
			24.3.1 The Phonetics/Phonology Distinction in Discussing Disordered Speech
			24.3.2 The Clinical Application of Different Levels of Transcription
			24.3.3 Instrumental Clinical Speech Analysis
		24.4 Recent Research
			24.4.1 Childhood Speech Sound Disorders
			24.4.2 Developmental Verbal Dyspraxia
			24.4.3 Child Speech Disorders Secondary to Broader BiomedicalConditions
			24.4.4 Acquired Motor Speech Disorders
			24.4.5 Hearing Impairment
			24.4.6 Disorders of Fluency
			24.4.7 Voice Disorders
		24.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		24.6 Future Directions
		24.7 References
		Appendix 24.1 The extIPA symbols
	Forensic Phonetics (Hudson, McDougall & Hughes)
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Historical Overview
		25.3 Critical Topics
			25.3.1 Content Identification
			25.3.2 Earwitness Evidence
				25.3.2.1 Factors Affecting Earwitness Evidence
				25.3.2.2 Construction and Administration of Voice Parades
			25.3.3 Speaker Profiling
			25.3.4 Forensic Speaker Comparison (FSC)
				25.3.4.1 Auditory Analysis
				25.3.4.2 Acoustic Analysis
				25.3.4.3 Some Practical Concerns
		25.4 Recent Research
			25.4.1 Automatic Speaker Recognition
			25.4.2 Likelihood Ratios and the Presentation of Evidence
		25.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		25.6 Future Directions
		25.7 References
	The Phonetics of Talk in Interaction (Ogden)
		26.1 Introduction
		26.1.1 Studying Conversation in Phonetics
		26.2 Historical Overview
		26.3 Critical Issues
			26.3.1 The Primacy of Action
			26.3.2 Evidence for Arguments
			26.3.3 Turn-taking
			26.3.4 Sequence Organisation
			26.3.5 Displays of Affect
		26.4 Recent Research
			26.4.1 The Anatomy of Turns at Talk
			26.4.2 Pre-Beginning Components
			26.4.3 Turn-Initial Position
			26.4.4 TRP and Turn Finality
			26.4.5 More Complex Turn Designs
			26.4.6 Properties of Whole TCUs
		25.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		26.6 Future Directions
		26.7 References
	The Phonetics/Phonology Interface (Kennedy)
		27.1 Introduction
			27.1.1 The Domains of Phonetics and Phonology
			27.1.2 Summary
		27.2 Historical Overview
			27.2.1 The Role of Sound in Phonological Analysis
			27.2.2 Contrasts and Categories in Phonetic Analysis
		27.3 Critical Issues
			27.3.1 The Interface as an Object of Inquiry
		27.4 Recent Research
			27.4.1 Experimental Phonology: Phonetic Evidence for Phonological Constructs
				27.4.1.1 Vowels
				27.4.1.2 Consonants
				27.4.1.3 Laryngeal Features
				27.4.1.4 Syllable Structure
				27.4.1.5 Tone and Prosody
			27.4.2 Theoretical Implications
			27.4.3 Linguistic Phonetics
		27.5 Best Practice for Teaching and Learning
		27.6 Future Directions
		27.7 References
Index