The Cambridge encyclopedia of child development

HALF-TITLE......Page 3
TITLE......Page 5
COPYRIGHT......Page 6
CONTENTS......Page 7
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 10
EDITORIAL PREFACE......Page 13
FOREWORD......Page 15
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: EXTERNAL REVIEWERS......Page 16
INTRODUCTION: What is development and interdisciplinarity?......Page 17
Concepts from 17th- and 18th-century embryology......Page 19
Development beyond the embryo......Page 20
Heredity and development......Page 22
Further reading......Page 23
Preformation: ovists and animalculists......Page 24
Francis Galton’s influential legacy......Page 25
Dichotomous thinking about individual development in early experimental embryology......Page 26
Predetermined and probabilistic epigenesis......Page 27
From central dogma of molecular biology to probabilistic epigenesis......Page 28
Role of ontogenetic development in evolution......Page 31
Conclusions......Page 32
Acknowledgments......Page 33
Development......Page 34
Ontogenetic development......Page 35
Evolution......Page 37
Evolutionary developmental biology......Page 38
Further reading......Page 40
The up and downs of interdisciplinarity......Page 41
Levelism......Page 42
Reductionism......Page 45
Homologies and isomorphisms......Page 46
News flash: “Pushing the frontiers of interdisciplinary research: an idea whose time has come” (Naturejobs, March 16, 2000)......Page 48
Conclusions......Page 49
Further reading......Page 50
PART I Theories of development......Page 51
From Comenius to Dewey......Page 53
Behaviorism......Page 56
On the meaning of maturation......Page 59
On developmental testing......Page 60
A reductionist?......Page 61
Gesell and McGraw: similarities and differences......Page 62
Further reading......Page 64
Piagetian foundations of constructivist theory......Page 65
Questions about Piaget’s structuralism......Page 66
Sociocultural challenges to the primacy of individual action......Page 67
The concept of skill......Page 68
Development in infancy......Page 69
Nativism and the question of innate abilities in infancy......Page 71
Extending the paths: webs of representational development......Page 72
Biogenetic processes......Page 75
Individual-agentic processes......Page 76
Sociocultural processes......Page 77
Conclusions......Page 78
Further reading......Page 79
Lorenz and the nature-nurture debate......Page 80
Perceptual development as a continuous interactive process......Page 81
Development of behavior systems......Page 83
Attachment theory......Page 84
Further reading......Page 85
S-S learning......Page 86
R-S and S-(R-S) learning......Page 87
Social learning theory......Page 88
Constraints on learning......Page 89
Probability learning......Page 90
Conclusions......Page 91
Further reading......Page 92
Beyond Freud: some general comments......Page 93
Heinz Hartmann (1844–1970)......Page 94
Joseph Sandler (1927–1998)......Page 95
Heinz Kohut (1913–1981)......Page 96
Relational theories......Page 97
Conclusions......Page 98
Further reading......Page 99
What is a theory?......Page 100
Phases of development in different domains......Page 101
Mental work and mental play......Page 103
Further reading......Page 104
What are dynamical systems?......Page 105
Coordination dynamics......Page 107
The dynamic field approach......Page 109
Relationships to similar theoretical perspectives......Page 112
Further reading......Page 113
PART II Methods in child development research......Page 115
Structural and volumetric Magnetic Resonance Imaging techniques......Page 117
Myelination and diffusion tensor imaging......Page 119
Functional magnetic resonance imaging......Page 120
Conclusions......Page 121
Piaget and his interview method......Page 122
Non-clinical interview methods......Page 123
Strengths and weaknesses of interview methods......Page 124
Conclusions......Page 125
Equivalence of data......Page 126
Conclusions......Page 127
Step one: description......Page 128
Step three: re-synthesis......Page 129
European pioneers......Page 130
From intelligence to developmental testing: a US perspective......Page 131
Conclusions......Page 132
Coding schemes......Page 133
Representing......Page 134
Conclusions......Page 135
Construct validity......Page 136
Construct validity over developmental time......Page 137
External validity......Page 138
Disadvantages......Page 139
The challenge of the choice of scales......Page 140
Sociometry......Page 141
Further reading......Page 142
Longitudinal designs......Page 143
Sampling strategies......Page 144
Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies: different beginnings, different ends......Page 145
Issues in longitudinal research......Page 146
Conclusions......Page 147
Contemporary studies of twins......Page 148
The rationale and methodological assumptions of adoption studies......Page 149
Findings from twin and adoption studies on cognitive development......Page 150
Further reading......Page 151
Influence efficacy......Page 152
Introduction......Page 153
The statistical model of Analysis of Variance......Page 154
Repeated measures Analysis of Variance......Page 155
Standard repeated measures ANOVA......Page 156
Bock’s profile analysis......Page 157
Modeling attachment behavior......Page 158
Absence of change......Page 159
Introducing individual development differences......Page 160
Evaluating parameters......Page 161
Further reading......Page 162
Structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques......Page 163
SEM Type I: developmental measurement models......Page 164
SEM Type III: latent growth models......Page 165
SEM Type IV: multiple group models......Page 166
SEM Type V: latent difference score models......Page 167
Conclusions......Page 168
Introduction......Page 169
Respect for persons......Page 170
Conclusions......Page 171
Further reading......Page 172
PART III Prenatal development and the newborn......Page 173
Some major questions......Page 175
Embryonic neurobehavioral development......Page 176
Ontogenetic adaptations......Page 177
Genes, development and evolution......Page 178
Changes in developmental timing: a source of evolutionary change......Page 179
Conclusions......Page 180
Further reading......Page 181
Overview of musculoskeletal morphology and physiology in adults......Page 182
Segmentation of muscles (including segmental and non-segmental muscles)......Page 183
Segregation of muscle masses......Page 184
Muscle fiber type......Page 185
Innervation pattern......Page 186
Development of motor innervation......Page 187
Further reading......Page 188
First trimester......Page 189
Second trimester......Page 191
Third trimester......Page 193
Environmental influences......Page 195
Nutrition......Page 196
Conclusions......Page 197
Further reading......Page 198
Impact of bipedalism on birth......Page 199
Emotional support and the birth process......Page 200
The concept of bonding......Page 201
Conclusions......Page 202
Further reading......Page 203
Altricial and precocial infants......Page 204
The newborn infant brain......Page 205
Vision......Page 206
Hearing, communication, and language......Page 207
Further reading......Page 208
PART IV Domains of development: from infancy to childhood......Page 209
Form perception......Page 211
Object unity and object segregation......Page 212
Object permanence and perception of physical reality......Page 213
Numerical identity......Page 215
Nativism, direct realism, or lower-level interpretation?......Page 216
Conclusions......Page 218
Further reading......Page 219
Innate, modularity theories......Page 220
Continuity/discontinuity and the special case of symbols......Page 221
Reasoning......Page 223
Cultural and sociocultural conceptualizations of development.......Page 224
Further reading......Page 225
Basic visual functions......Page 226
Higher-level visual functions......Page 227
Basic auditory perception......Page 228
Higher-level auditory function......Page 230
Other senses......Page 231
Further reading......Page 232
The humble beginnings......Page 233
New abilities and subsequent improvements......Page 234
Characteristics of motor development and learning......Page 235
Explaining motor development and learning......Page 236
The origins of new motor abilities......Page 237
Specificity of learning versus learning transfer......Page 238
The roles of growth and experience......Page 240
Further reading......Page 241
Acknowledgments......Page 242
Why focus on relationships?......Page 243
Parent-child relationships......Page 244
Sibling relationships......Page 246
Children’s peer relationships......Page 247
Further reading......Page 249
On the co-development of cognition and emotion......Page 250
Disgust and interest......Page 252
Fear......Page 253
Emotional awareness......Page 254
Early childhood and beyond......Page 255
Conclusions......Page 256
Further reading......Page 257
The main focus: development of moral judgments......Page 258
Social experiences and the development of moral judgments......Page 259
The multiplicity of social experiences and The multiplicity of social experiences and moral judgments......Page 261
Conclusions......Page 263
Further reading......Page 264
On the complexity of speech......Page 265
Major achievements in speech development......Page 266
Birth to 1 month......Page 267
2 to 3 months......Page 268
6 to 10 months......Page 269
11 to 18 months......Page 270
Conclusions......Page 271
Further reading......Page 272
Early auditory development......Page 273
Early articulation......Page 274
The first words......Page 275
Word meanings......Page 276
Filling in the missing glue......Page 277
Special Gift or emergence?......Page 278
Language emergence and time scales......Page 279
Further reading......Page 280
Postnatal learning......Page 281
Classical conditioning......Page 282
Operant conditioning......Page 283
Imitation......Page 284
Long-term memory......Page 285
Reinstatement and reactivation......Page 286
Childhood amnesia......Page 287
Conclusions......Page 288
Further reading......Page 289
PART V Selected topics......Page 291
Developmental origins of aggression and prosocial behavior......Page 293
From physical to indirect aggression......Page 294
Prosocial behavior......Page 295
Determinants of aggressive and prosocial behavior......Page 296
Further reading......Page 297
Young infant attention development: from stimulus orienting to sustained attention......Page 298
Individual differences in the development of attention......Page 299
Development of executive attention......Page 300
Conclusions......Page 301
Further reading......Page 302
Some further caveats......Page 303
early brain development......Page 304
On behavioral development in the prenatal period......Page 306
General movements......Page 307
On the roles of the cerebellum and basal ganglia in motor control......Page 308
Development of locomotion......Page 309
Conclusions......Page 310
Further reading......Page 311
Adult organization: cortical layers, columns, and their specializations......Page 312
Making areas......Page 315
Neurogenesis and innervation......Page 316
A uniform perinatal burst of synaptogenesis......Page 317
Continuous brain, discontinuous behavior......Page 318
Conclusions......Page 319
Further reading......Page 320
Principles of connectionist models......Page 321
Specific connectionist models of development......Page 322
Conclusions......Page 323
Acknowledgments......Page 324
Daycare and child development......Page 325
The National Institutes for Child Health and Development (NICHD) study......Page 326
Measures of the quality of daycare......Page 327
Further reading......Page 328
Executive function tasks......Page 329
Current research topics......Page 330
Further reading......Page 332
Is face recognition a special case of object perception?......Page 333
Developmental studies......Page 334
Further reading......Page 335
Acknowledgments......Page 336
Overview of the evidence......Page 337
Representative findings for different age periods......Page 338
Stability or change?......Page 339
Explanations......Page 340
Conclusions......Page 341
Further reading......Page 342
Imitation beyond the newborn period......Page 343
Imitation and brain science......Page 344
Conclusions......Page 346
Further reading......Page 347
The psychometric view......Page 348
Neo-Piagetian views......Page 349
Systems approaches......Page 350
Further reading......Page 351
Changing views on the development of walking......Page 352
Control of a multisegmented body......Page 353
Conclusions......Page 354
Further reading......Page 355
Contemporary strands......Page 356
Further reading......Page 358
Pretend play......Page 360
Sociodramatic play......Page 361
Rough-and-tumble play......Page 362
Further reading......Page 363
Pre-reaching and other newborn movements......Page 364
Problems to be overcome......Page 365
Conclusions......Page 366
Further reading......Page 367
Phonology and literacy......Page 368
Morphology and literacy......Page 370
Conclusions......Page 371
Further reading......Page 372
Consequences for pedagogy......Page 373
Education policy and literacy......Page 374
Conclusions......Page 376
Further reading......Page 377
Brain function and self......Page 378
On the development of the mental state of me......Page 379
The self and cognitive development......Page 380
Further reading......Page 381
Sex differences in growth rates and vulnerability......Page 382
Sex differences in psychiatric disorders and symptoms......Page 383
Schooling......Page 384
Sex differences in activities and social organization......Page 385
Proximate determinants of sex differences......Page 386
Further reading......Page 389
Siblings and parents......Page 390
Relationships with the peer group: popularity and rejection......Page 391
Conclusions......Page 392
Further reading......Page 393
Sleep......Page 394
Wakefulness......Page 395
Conclusions......Page 397
Further reading......Page 398
The active infant......Page 399
Folk wisdom and parenting......Page 400
Conclusions......Page 401
Further reading......Page 402
Methods for evaluating temperament......Page 403
Development of temperament......Page 404
Conclusions......Page 405
Further reading......Page 406
PART VI Developmental pathology......Page 407
The at-risk concept, vulnerability, and resources......Page 409
At-risk versus established risk......Page 410
Resilience......Page 411
Conclusions......Page 412
Further reading......Page 413
Empathizing-Systemizing (E-S) theory......Page 414
Executive dysfunction theory......Page 415
Neurological causes of autism......Page 416
Acknowledgments......Page 417
Learning disability......Page 418
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)......Page 419
Tourette’s syndrome and other tic disorders......Page 421
Conclusions......Page 423
Further reading......Page 424
Search for objects......Page 425
Early social interaction......Page 426
Language development......Page 427
Conclusions......Page 428
Further reading......Page 429
Definition and descriptions of the cerebral palsies......Page 430
Occurrence of cerebral palsy......Page 431
Causal pathways to the cerebral palsies......Page 434
Further reading......Page 435
Other shortcomings of present classifications......Page 436
Neurobiological factors......Page 437
Life events and difficulties......Page 438
Acknowledgment......Page 439
The problem of diagnosis......Page 440
Observational and empirical studies......Page 441
Follow-up studies......Page 442
Further reading......Page 443
Diagnosis and classification......Page 445
Perceptual-motor development......Page 446
Language and cognitive development......Page 447
Further reading......Page 448
Phonological deficits and learning to read......Page 449
Cross-linguistic manifestations of dyslexia......Page 450
Conclusions......Page 451
Further reading......Page 452
Factors to consider......Page 453
Cognitive, social, and educational considerations......Page 454
Signing......Page 455
Hearing aids......Page 456
Further reading......Page 457
Fetal growth retardation......Page 458
Problems encountered in the newborn preterm infant......Page 459
Motor development in preterm infants without cerebral palsy......Page 460
Long-term outcome in preterm infants......Page 461
Further reading......Page 463
Infant crying as a developing behavior and a clinical problem......Page 464
Causes of the infant crying bouts......Page 465
Causal explanations that attribute the infant crying to individual differences in developmental processes......Page 466
Conclusions......Page 467
Further reading......Page 468
Sleeping position and related factors implicated in the decline of SIDS......Page 469
Diversity among SIDS victims......Page 470
New perspectives on SIDS: the importance of parental night-time contact, breastfeeding, and how the brain uses serotonin......Page 471
Further reading......Page 473
Phenotype: physical, neurological, and behavioral characteristics......Page 474
Social behavior......Page 475
Innate modularity hypothesis......Page 476
Further reading......Page 477
PART VII Crossing the borders......Page 479
A focus on children and subsequent neglect......Page 481
Psychologists on culture and development......Page 482
Contemporary anthropology......Page 483
Further reading......Page 484
Behavior as a factor in prenatal development......Page 485
The principle of induction......Page 486
Self-stimulation by the embryo......Page 487
Conclusions......Page 488
Further reading......Page 489
Co-morbidity and trait covariation......Page 490
Shared environment in.uences......Page 491
Gene-environment interactions......Page 492
Acknowledgments......Page 493
The maturational perspective......Page 494
The interactive specialization approach......Page 495
The skill learning hypothesis......Page 496
Acknowledgments......Page 497
The roles of genes in building nervous systems......Page 498
Examples of the developmental genetic approach......Page 499
Forward and reverse genetics......Page 500
Further reading......Page 502
Border dispute problem......Page 503
Implication......Page 504
Inter-dependence......Page 505
Further reading......Page 506
Pattern formation and movement as unifying themes......Page 507
Example one: rodent grooming......Page 508
Example two: social communication in wolves......Page 509
Clinical issues......Page 510
Conclusions......Page 511
Acknowledgments......Page 512
Discovering the mapping between form and function......Page 513
Semantic and syntactic bootstrapping......Page 514
Acquiring a language-specific semantic system......Page 515
Conclusions......Page 516
Further reading......Page 517
The contributions of Down, Freud, and others to the emergence of pediatrics......Page 518
Neonatal assessment......Page 520
Children with disabilities......Page 521
Further reading......Page 522
National longitudinal studies as arenas for collaboration......Page 523
The social stress perspective......Page 524
Conclusions......Page 526
Further reading......Page 527
Appendices......Page 529
James Mark Baldwin (1861–1934)......Page 531
peter bryant......Page 532
peter fonagy......Page 533
david olson......Page 534
ronald w. oppenheim......Page 535
peter fonagy......Page 536
ronald w. oppenheim......Page 537
pierre mounoud......Page 538
kurt kreppner......Page 539
eugene subbotsky......Page 540
willis f. overton & ulrich müller......Page 541
peter fonagy......Page 542
Milestones in motor development......Page 544
Skeletal maturity......Page 546
Age at menarche......Page 547
Somatic maturity......Page 548
Conclusions......Page 549
Further reading......Page 550
The ACE model......Page 551
Testing signi.cance......Page 552
Multivariate genetic analyses......Page 553
Conclusions......Page 554
Acknowledgments......Page 555
APPENDIX 4 Glossary of terms......Page 556
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 626
AUTHOR INDEX......Page 644
SUBJECT INDEX......Page 655