The biotechnology of ethanol: classical and future applications

Content: Classical Methods / T. Senn, H.J. Pieper 7 --
1 Starch Containing Raw Materials 7 --
1.1 Potatoes 7 --
1.2 Wheat 8 --
1.3 Rye 9 --
1.4 Triticale 10 --
1.5 Corn (Maize) 10 --
1.5.1 Dried Storable Corn Grain 10 --
1.5.2 Corn Grain Silage 11 --
1.6 Barley 12 --
1.7 Sweet Sorghum 12 --
1.8 Sorghum Grain 13 --
1.9 Manioc 13 --
2 Technical Amylolysis 14 --
2.1 Enzymatic Starch Liquefaction 14 --
2.1.1 Thermostable Bacterial [alpha]-Amylase of Bacillus licheniformis (TBA) 15 --
2.1.2 Bacterial [alpha]-Amylase of Bacillus subtilis (BAA) 15 --
2.1.3 Bacterial [alpha]-Amylase Expressed by Bacillus licheniformis (BAB) 16 --
2.1.4 Fungal [alpha]-Amylase of Aspergillus oryzae (FAA) 16 --
2.2 Enzymatic Starch Liquefaction and Saccharification 16 --
2.2.1 Green Malt 17 --
2.2.2 Kiln-Dried Malt 18 --
2.2.2.1 Barley as a Malting Grain 18 --
2.2.2.2 Other Grains in Malting 19 --
2.3 Enzymatic Starch Saccharification 20 --
2.3.1 Glucoamylase of Aspergillus niger (GAA) 20 --
2.3.2 Glucoamylase of Rhizopus sp. (GAR) 20 --
2.3.3 Enzyme Combinations 21 --
3 Starch Degradation by Autoamylolysis 22 --
3.1 Wheat 25 --
3.2 Rye 26 --
3.3 Triticale 27 --
4 Mashing Processes 29 --
4.1 Mashing Equipment 29 --
4.1.1 Wet Cleaning of Potatoes 29 --
4.1.2 Grinding Raw Materials 30 --
4.1.2.1 Mills 30 --
4.1.2.2 Dispersing Machines 31 --
4.1.3 Mash Tubs 32 --
4.1.4 Heat Exchangers 33 --
4.1.4.1 Processing with Heat Exchangers 34 --
4.1.5 Henze Cooker 35 --
4.2 Pressure Boiling Processes 36 --
4.2.1 High Pressure Cooking Process (HPCP) 36 --
4.2.2 Bacteria-Free Fermentation Process of Verlinden (Verlinden Process, VP) 38 --
4.3 Pressureless Breakdown of Starch 38 --
4.3.1 Infusion Processes 38 --
4.3.1.1 Milling and Mashing Process at Saccharification Temperature 38 --
4.3.1.2 Gro[beta]e-Lohmann-Spradau (GLS) Process 40 --
4.3.1.3 Milling and Mashing Process at Higher Temperatures (MMP) 41 --
4.3.2 Recycling Processes 42 --
4.3.2.1 Stillage Recycling Process (SRP) 42 --
4.3.2.2 Dispersing Mash Process Developed at Hohenheim University (DMP) 43 --
5 Processing Potatoes 45 --
6 Processing Grain 46 --
6.1 Wheat 48 --
6.2 Rye 48 --
6.3 Triticale 49 --
6.4 Corn 49 --
6.4.1 Dried Storable Corn Grain 49 --
6.4.2 Corn Grain Silage 50 --
6.5 Barley 50 --
7 Processing Tropical Raw Materials 51 --
7.1 Sweet Sorghum 51 --
7.2 Sorghum Grain 52 --
7.3 Manioc 52 --
8 Mashing Processes Using Autoamylolytical Activities in Raw Materials 52 --
8.1 Processing Wheat 53 --
8.2 Processing Triticale 53 --
8.3 Processing Rye 54 --
8.4 Saccharification of Raw Materials with Weak Autoamylolytical Activities (Wheat, Corn, Potatoes) 54 --
9 Yeast Mash Treatment 56 --
10 Fermentation 57 --
10.1 Batch Fermentation 57 --
10.2 Suppression of Contaminants 59 --
11 Distillation 60 --
11.1 Distillation of Raw Spirit from Mashes 60 --
11.2 Rectification of Product Spirit from Raw Spirit 63 --
11.3 Distillation and Rectification of the Alcohol Product from Mashes 65 --
12 Stillage 66 --
12.1 Stillage as a Feedstuff 66 --
12.2 Stillage as a Fertilizer 68 --
13 Analytical Methods 71 --
13.2 Analysis of Raw Materials 71 --
13.2.1 Starch Content of Potatoes 71 --
13.2.2 Starch Content of Grain 72 --
13.2.2.1 Determination of Fermentable Substance in Grain (FS) 72 --
13.2.3 Autoamylolytical Quotient (AAQ) 74 --
13.3 Analysis of Mashes 76 --
13.3.1 Mash Hydrosizing 76 --
13.3.2 Extract of Mashes 77 --
13.3.3 pH of Mashes 78 --
13.3.4 Content of Ethanol in Mashes and Distillates 78 --
13.3.5 Microexamination 79 --
13.4 Analysis of Yeast Mashes 79 --
13.5 Analysis of Stillage 80 --
13.5.1 Content of Ethanol in Stillage 80 --
13.5.2 Content of Starch and Fermentable Sugars in Stillage 80 --
14 Energy Consumption and Energy Balance in Classical Processes 81 --
Potential Source of Energy and Chemical Products / N. Kosaric, F. Vardar-Sukan 89 --
2 Microbiology and Biochemistry of Ethanol Formation 90 --
2.1 Yeast Fermentation 92 --
2.2 Ethanol Fermentation with Bacteria 99 --
2.2.1 Thermophilic Organisms 102 --
2.3 Bacteria vs. Yeast 103 --
2.4 Genetically Modified Organisms 105 --
3 Immobilized Cell Systems 107 --
4 Substrates for Industrial Alcohol Production 115 --
4.1 Sugar Crops 116 --
4.1.1 Sugarcane 116 --
4.1.2 Sugar and Fodder Beets 117 --
4.1.3 Fruit Crops 117 --
4.2 Industrial and Food Processing Wastes 119 --
4.2.1 Waste Sulfite Liquors (WSL) 119 --
4.2.2 Whey 120 --
4.2.3 Food Industry Wastes 120 --
4.3 Starches 121 --
4.3.1 Corn 121 --
4.3.2 Cassava 122 --
4.3.3 Sweet Potato 123 --
4.3.4 Sweet Sorghum 123 --
4.3.5 Jerusalem Artichoke 123 --
4.3.6 Starch Saccharification 125 --
4.3.6.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Starch 125 --
4.3.6.2 Acid Hydrolysis of Starch 125 --
4.4 Lignocellulose 125 --
4.4.1 Characteristics of Lignocellulosic Material 126 --
4.4.2 Pretreatment 128 --
4.4.2.1 Milling 128 --
4.4.2.2 Steam Explosion 129 --
4.4.2.3 Use of Solvents 130 --
4.4.2.4 Swelling Agents 131 --
4.4.2.5 Lignin-Consuming Microorganisms 131 --
4.4.3 Acid Hydrolysis 132 --
4.4.3.1 Concentrated Acid 133 --
4.4.3.2 Dilute Acid 133 --
4.4.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 136 --
4.4.4.1 Mechanism of Enzymatic Hydrolysis 137 --
4.4.4.2 Comparison of Enzymatic and Acid Hydrolysis 138 --
5 Fermentation Modes of Industrial Interest 139 --
5.1 Batch Process 139 --
5.2 Fed-Batch Processes 141 --
5.3 Semi-Continuous Processes 143 --
5.4 Continuous Processes 145 --
6 Industrial Processes 149 --
6.1 Types of Bioreactors for Ethanol Production 149 --
6.1.1 Solid Phase Fermentation (Ex-Ferm Process) 155 --
6.1.2 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF) Process 155 --
6.1.3 Recycle Systems 157 --
6.1.4 Novel Reactors for On-Line Product Removal 157 --
6.2 Some Examples of Industrial Processes 163 --
6.2.1 Ethanol from Corn 163 --
6.2.2 Ethanol from Cassava Root 166 --
6.2.3 Ethanol from Potatoes 168 --
6.2.4 Ethanol from Jerusalem Artichoke Tubers (Topinambur) 169 --
6.2.5 Ethanol from Carob Pod Extract 169 --
6.2.6 Ethanol from Cellulose 170 --
6.2.6.1 Dilute Sulfuric Acid Process 170 --
6.2.6.2 Strong Acid Hydrolysis Process 173 --
6.2.6.3 Ethanol Production from Agricultural Residues via Acid Hydrolysis 174 --
6.2.6.4 Ethanol from Newspaper via Enzymatic Hydrolysis 176 --
6.2.6.5 Ethanol from Municipal Solid Waste via Acid Hydrolysis 176 --
6.2.7 Ethanol from Waste Sulfite Liquor (WSL) 181 --
6.2.8 Ethanol from Whey 181 --
7 By-Products of Ethanol Fermentation 182 --
7.1 Waste Biomass 182 --
7.2 Stillage 182 --
7.3 Carbon Dioxide 186 --
7.4 Fusel Oils 186 --
8 Economic and Energy Aspects of Ethanol Fermentation 187 --
8.1 Ethanol from Jerusalem Artichokes (A Case Study) 196 --
8.2 Energetics 201 --
8.2.1 Ethanol from Corn 201 --
8.2.2 Ethanol from Sugarcane and Cassava 202 --
8.2.3 Ethanol from Wood 203 --
8.2.4 Ethanol from Cornstalks 204 --
9 Ethanol as a Liquid Fuel 204 --
9.1 Characteristics of Ethanol and Gasoline-Ethanol Blends as Motor Fuel 206 --
9.1.1 Exhaust and Evaporative Emissions 206 --
9.1.2 Ignition, Cold Start-Up, and Driveability 207 --
9.1.3 Water Tolerance of Ethanol-Gasoline Blends 208 --
9.1.4 Lubrication 209 --
9.1.5 Corrosion and Materials Compatibility for Alcohol-Fuelled Vehicles 209 --
9.1.6 Safety of Alcohol 210 --
9.2 Modifications and Conversions of Existing Internal Combustion Engines to Utilize Ethanol and Ethanol-Gasoline Blends 210 --
9.2.1 Research 210 --
9.2.2 Applications 212 --
9.3 Comparison of Ethanol with Other Motor Fuels 213 --
10 Present and Potential Markets for Ethanol 215 --
11 Future Trends and Research 218.