The Bilingual Advantage in Executive Functioning Hypothesis: How the Debate Provides Insight into Psychology’s Replication Crisis

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Dedication and Preface
Part I The Foundation
	1 Early Research On the Effects of Bilingualism On Intelligence and Executive Functioning
		Is There a Favorable Relationship Between Bilingualism and Intelligence?
			What Is Intelligence?
			Studies in the 1920s
			The Darcy Studies
			The Peal and Lambert Hammer
		What Is This Book About?
			The Hypothesis
			Executive Functioning
			Framing the Debate
			Why the Theory Is Undead
			Theories Explaining the Absence of Bilingual Advantages
		In Praise of Bilingualism From a Cat On a Hot Tin Roof
	2 Executive Functioning in the Lab and in Everyday Life
		What Is Executive Functioning (EF)?
		Performance-based Measures of EF
			Task Impurity
			Test-Retest Reliability
		The Lack of Convergent Validity Within Variants of the Same Task
		The Flanker, Stroop, and Simon Tasks: Three Birds of a Different Feather
		The Latent Structure of EF
			The “Just Right” Goldilocks Principle
			The Problem With Inhibition as a Latent Variable
		Are Fluid Intelligence and EF the Same Construct?
		“Controlling For” Gf Or WMC and Similar Conundrums
		Is Impulse Control a Special Case and Separable From Executive Control?
			The Three Facets of “Impulsivity”
			The Family Resemblance Twixt “Impulsivity” and Self-Report Measures of Self-Control
		What Does the Tangney, Baumeister, and Boon (TBB) Brief Self-Control (BSC) Scale Measure?
		Correlations Between Self-Report Scales and Performance-Based Measures
			Would EF By Any Other Name Smell as Sweet?
			The Dissociation Between Self-Reports and Executive Functioning Performance
	3 Factors That May Affect EF and May Often Confound a Test of the Bilingual Advantage in EF Hypothesis
		The Effects of Culture On EF
		The Effects of SES On EF in Childhood
		Longitudinal Studies of the Effects of SES On EF
			Ages 4–6
			Ages 4.5–8
			Ages 10–13
		Non-longitudinal Studies Extending Into Adulthood
			Ages 9–25
			Mean Age of 22
			Ages 10–86
		Observations On the Relationship Between SES and EF
		Heritability
	4 What We Think We Know About Bilingual Language Control
		Consequences of Coactivation
		The Inhibitory Control Model (ICM)
		The Best Study Implicating Inhibition (Macizo, Bajo, and Martin, 2010)
		Where Is Global Inhibition When You Need It?
		Phenomena Thought to Fit Well With an Inhibitory Control Mechanism
			Asymmetry of Language Switch Costs
			N-2 Language Repetition Costs
			Reverse Language Dominance
			The BIA+ Eschews Inhibition
		How Costly Is Switching Languages?
Part II The Debate Emerges
	5 What Did Simon Say? A Spark Ignites a Fire
		The Simon Task
		Morton and Harper’s Failed Replication
		Simon’s Effects in Older Adults
		Simon Says (Too) Many Things
		Does Language Similarity Increase Or Decrease Cross-Language Competition?
	6 The Bilingual Advantage as Enhanced Inhibitory Control
		The History of Inhibition in Bilingual Language Control
		Evidence Against an Inhibitory Control Account
			Hilchey and Klein (2011)
			Paap and Greenberg (2013)
			The BCBL Studies
			Gathercole et al. (2014)
			Privitera et al. (2022)
	7 Shifting to a Monitoring Account
		What Is Monitoring?
		Monitoring as the Cost of Mixing
		Hilchey and Klein’s Hypothesis
		Monitoring as Measured By Global RT
		Are There Bilingual Advantages in Global RT?
	8 Shifting to an Executive Attention Account
		Ellen Bialystok’s New Focus On Executive Attention
		Bilingual Advantages in the Disengagement of Attention
		Conjunctive Visual Search
			Morphing Ambiguous Figures
			Inhibition-of-Return
		Disengagement of Attention in Congruency Sequence Effects (CSEs)
			Grundy’s Account of CSEs
			Failures to Replicate Grundy et al.
				The Time Course of CSEs
			Why Smaller CSEs Are Not Better
			What Can Be Concluded From CSEs?
	9 Accounts That Emphasize “Adaptations”
		Proactive and Reactive Control in Conflict Adaptation
			Is There a Bilingual Advantage in Proactive Control?
			Is There a Bilingualism Effect in Reactive Control?
		Are Bilinguals Better at Coordinating Proactive and Reactive Control?
		Concluding Puzzles
	10 The Special Role of Language Switching
		The Adaptive Control Hypothesis (ACH)
		Hartanto and Yang (2016, 2020)
		Khodas, Moskovsky, and Paolini (2021)
		Kalamala et al. (2020)
		Lai and O’Brien (2020)
		Pot, Keijzer, and De Bot (2018)
		Jylkkä, Laine, and Lehtonen (2021)
		Kuzyk, Friend, Severdija, Zesiger, and Poulin-Dubois (2020)
		Does DLC Lead to Better Executive Control?
		Are There No Benefits to Executive Control From Dense Code-Switching?
			Does the Frequency of Switching Within Sentences/Utterances Predict EF?
			Hofweber, Marinis, and Treffers-Daller (2016)
			Green and Wei’s (2014) Control Process Model
			Back to Singapore: Ng and Yang (2021)
		The “Pure-Case” Approach Used By Paap, Mason, and Anders-Jefferson (2021)
			SLC Criteria
			DLC Criteria
			DCS Criteria
			Criteria for Monolinguals
			The Pure-Case Analysis of the Paap, Anders-Jefferson et al. (2018) Dataset
			The Pure-Case Analysis of the Paap, Anders-Jefferson et al. (2019) Dataset
		Does Language Mixing (A Transient Dual-Language Context) Trigger Better General EF?
	11 The March of the Mighty Meta-Analyses
		Inhibition/Interference Control
		Switching/Mental Flexibility
		Working Memory Capacity
		Meta-Analyses of Children
			Lowe, Cho, Goldsmith, and Morton (2022)
			Gunnerud, Ten Braak, Reikera°s, Donolato, and Melby-Lerva°g (2020)
		Meta-Analyses of Older Adults
		New Studies Using Older Adults
	12 Problematic Meta-Analyses and Confirmation Bias
		Armstrong et al. (2019)
		Ware, Kirkovski, and Lum (2010)
		Confirmation Bias Redux and/or Type-I Incompetence
		The Alchemy of Continuous Measures of Bilingualism and Measures of EF
	13 Mega-Data and Mega-Control: A Small On Big Data and Extreme Bilinguals
		Dick et al. (2018)
		Nichols, Wild, Stojanoski, Battista, and Owen (2020)
		Other Studies Using Propensity-Score Matching From Large Sample Studies
		Hartanto, Toh, and Yang (2018)
			A Reanalysis Using Propensity-Score Matching
			A Note On the DCCS
		Professional Interpreters and L2 Teachers Versus Near Monolinguals
	14 The Effects of Bilingualism Over Time and On Aging
		Training Studies: Time for Bilingualism Research to Step Up Our Game
		Longitudinal Studies, Fluid Intelligence, and Reverse Causality
		Does Bilingualism Delay the Onset of Cognitive Aging Or Dementia?
		The Retrospective Studies
		Incidence of AD By Country
		Prospective Studies of the Benefits of Cognitive Activities On the Diagnosis of AD
		Prospective Studies of the Effects of Bilingualism On the Diagnosis of AD
			Crane et al. (2009)
			Sanders et al. (2012)
			Yeung et al. (2014)
			Lawton et al. (2015)
			Zahodne et al. (2014)
			Wilson et al. (2015)
			Summary
		Making Sense of the Prospective Studies Using Longitudinal Cohorts
		The Debate Over Delay in AD Onset Versus Incidence
		The Only Experiment (Randomized Control Trial)
	15 Are There Bilingual Advantages in Self-Reports of Cognitive Control Or Impulsivity?
		Parental Reports: Goodrich, Koziol, Yoon, and Leiva (2021)
Part III Reconstruction
	16 What May Cause the Steady Drip of Positive Findings?
		False Positives
			False Positives From QRPs
			False Positives Due to Confounds
		Immigrant Status, Culture, and SES as Confounds
			Culture
			Acculturation
			SES
		False Positives as Statistical Apparitions
			Significant Interactions With the Wrong Pattern
			Missing Interactions
			ANCOVA Cannot Statistically “Control” for Failures to Match
			Some False Positives Are Quirks
		False Positives Due to Confounding Grow as Sample Size Shrinks
		Lack of Enthusiasm for Exact Replications
		A Plan for Possible Reconciliation
	17 In Defense of the Hypothesis: And a Rebuttal
		Categorical Hypothesizing
		Unicorns: The Elusive Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Generating Advantages
			L2 Proficiency
			Advantages in Children Reprised
			Patterns of Language Switching
			An Ecological Approach to Bilingualism
			Cooking Pasta in La Paz
		Extracting Signal From Noise
			The Mole Hill About the Normality Assumption
			Evidence From Null Results
			What Can Phenotypes Predict?
		Swiss Cheese and Mitigating Covid-19
		Bilingualism as Discovery Science: Escaping the Bonds of Systematic Science?
			What Do “Black Swans” Signify?
			Black Swan 1 – Bak, Nissan, Allerhand, and Deary (2014)
			Black Swan 2 – Santillán and Khurana (2017)
			Consilience
			The Binary-Classification Strawman
			Gullifer and Titone (2022)
			Discovery Science and Trust
	18 The Bialystok and Craik (2022) “New and Improved” Attentional Control Theory
		A Few Counterarguments
			The N-Back Example
			The Global RT Example
			The Interference Suppression Example
			The Preverbal Infant Example
		Ignoring Or Distorting the Meta-Analytic Record
		The Evidence for a Holistic Attention-Control Ability
		Predicting Cognitive Benefit
		The Way Forward
		Bialystok and Craik’s (2022) Case for Attentional Control
			Adaptation, Not Transfer
		Advantages in Resources Or Efficiency?
	19 Why Cognitive Neuroscience Can’t Resolve the Debate
		The Neuroanatomy of Bilinguals
		Three Theories Appeal to Automatization But Arrive at Different Implications
		Event Related Potentials (ERPs)
		Alignment Problems in FMRI
	20 Is There an Advantage? How Should We Decide? Why Might There Be No Advantage?
		Possible Differences at the Population Level
		Testing a Hypothesis About People Versus a Hypothesis About Training EF
		The Population of Interest Versus the Population One Is Sampling From
		Bayes Factors Can Provide Evidence for the Null, Unlike P Values
			Do Research Psychologists Adjust Their Priors?
		Do We Need More Discovery Science in Bilingualism?
		More and Better Theory-Testing Research
		Possible Reasons Why Bilingual Advantages May Not Exist
			Bilingualism as Just One Signal Among Many
			Bilingual Language Control Is Encapsulated Within the Language-Processing System
			All Control Is Modular
		The Blanco-Elorrieta and Caramazza Challenge
References
Name Index
Subject Index