The atmosphere

Treatise on Geochemistry......Page 2
Executive Editor's Foreword......Page 3
INTRODUCTION......Page 6
Evolution of Oxidizing Capability......Page 8
Prebiotic Atmosphere......Page 9
Troposphere......Page 10
Stratosphere......Page 12
Meteorological Influences......Page 13
Industrial Revolution......Page 14
Future Projections......Page 15
Direct Measurement......Page 16
Indirect Measurement......Page 18
Conclusions......Page 21
References......Page 22
Introduction......Page 25
Main Reaction Mechanisms......Page 28
Tropospheric Ozone Depletion at Polar Sunrise......Page 31
Main Features of Polar ODEs......Page 32
Sources of Active Bromine......Page 34
Chlorine Chemistry in ODEs and Br–Cl Interactions......Page 36
Marine Boundary Layer......Page 37
Sea Salt Aerosols......Page 38
Reactive Chlorine......Page 41
Reactive Bromine......Page 42
Reactive Iodine......Page 46
Surface Segregation Effects......Page 49
Sulfur......Page 50
Salt Lakes......Page 52
Possible Source of Free Tropospheric BrO......Page 53
Industry and Fossil Fuel Burning......Page 54
Organic Halogen Compounds......Page 55
Inventories......Page 56
Acknowledgments......Page 57
References......Page 58
Introduction......Page 69
Global Methane Budget......Page 70
Global Methane Increase......Page 71
Gross Methane Budget......Page 72
Atmospheric Models......Page 73
Stable Isotopes......Page 74
Flux Time Series......Page 76
Process-level Studies......Page 77
Wetland Soil Models......Page 78
Animals, Landfills, and Biomass Burning......Page 79
Microbial Soil Oxidation......Page 80
New Techniques......Page 81
Aerobic Methane Oxidation......Page 82
Anaerobic Methane Oxidation......Page 83
Methane Clathrate Hydrates......Page 84
Ice Cores......Page 86
Future Work......Page 87
References......Page 88
4.04 Tropospheric Aerosols......Page 94
Overview......Page 95
Sources......Page 98
Spatial Homogeneity......Page 99
Aerosol Properties......Page 100
Number and Mass Distributions......Page 102
Composition......Page 105
Optical Properties......Page 106
Particle Sizes, Size Distributions, and Number and Mass Concentrations......Page 107
Composition......Page 111
Hygroscopicity......Page 118
Optical Properties......Page 119
Spatial and Temporal Variation of Tropospheric Aerosols......Page 120
Remote Sensing of Aerosol Using Passive Light Sources......Page 121
Remote Sensing of Aerosol Using an Active Light Source......Page 124
Emissions......Page 126
Gas-to-particle Conversions and Other Atmospheric Reactions......Page 127
Long-range Transport......Page 129
Representation of Aerosol Processes in Chemical Transport and Transformation Models......Page 130
Background......Page 133
Direct Aerosol Shortwave Radiative Forcing......Page 134
Clouds and Indirect Effects......Page 137
Aerosol Forcing Relative to Other Forcings of Climate Change overthe Industrial Period......Page 138
Acknowledgments......Page 139
References......Page 140
Introduction: Biomass Burning, Geochemical Cycling, and Global Change......Page 146
Global Impacts of Biomass Burning......Page 147
Biomass Burning in the Boreal Forests......Page 149
Calculation of Gaseous and Particulate Emissions from Fires......Page 152
Biomass Burning and Atmospheric Nitrogen and Oxygen......Page 153
Production of O3 in the Troposphere......Page 154
A Case Study of Biomass Burning: The 1997 Wildfires in Southeast Asia......Page 155
Results of Calculations: Gaseous and Particulate Emissions from the Fires.........Page 157
Measurements over Indonesia......Page 158
References......Page 159
General Introduction......Page 162
The Physical Chemistry of Mass-independent Isotope Effects......Page 164
Observations in Nature......Page 165
Atmospheric Ozone......Page 166
Stratospheric Carbon Dioxide......Page 167
Aerosol Sulfate: Present Earth Atmosphere......Page 168
Other Mass-independent Sulfate Isotopic Compositions......Page 169
Atmospheric Molecular Oxygen......Page 170
The Atmospheric Aerosol Nitrate and the Nitrogen Cycle......Page 171
Mass-Independent Isotopic Compositions in Solids......Page 172
Mass-Independent Isotopic Fractionation Processes in the Early Solar System......Page 173
Concluding Comments......Page 174
References......Page 175
Introduction......Page 177
Methodology and Terminology......Page 178
Carbon-13 in Atmospheric CO2......Page 181
Exchange with the Ocean......Page 184
Atmosphere--Ocean Disequilibrium......Page 186
Photosynthetic CO2 Uptake on Land......Page 187
CO2 Release in Respiration......Page 190
The Land Disequilibrium......Page 192
Ecosystem Discrimination......Page 193
Incorporating Isotopes in Flux Measurements......Page 195
Oxygen-18 in CO2......Page 197
The Soil Component......Page 199
The Leaf Component......Page 201
The Minor Components......Page 203
Spatial and Temporal Patterns......Page 204
References......Page 207
Nomenclature......Page 215
Introduction......Page 216
Present-day observations......Page 218
Fractionation Processes......Page 219
Growth of Individual Elements......Page 221
Isotopic Processes in Clouds......Page 223
Rayleigh-type Models......Page 224
Isotope Modeling with GCMs......Page 226
Ice Core Isotopic Records......Page 229
The Conventional Approach for Interpreting Water Isotopes in Ice Cores......Page 232
Greenland......Page 234
Antarctica......Page 235
Influence of the Seasonality of the Precipitation......Page 237
Influence of the Origin of the Precipitation......Page 238
Estimating the Temporal Slope from Isotopic GCMs......Page 239
Conclusion......Page 240
References......Page 241
Production and Distribution of 14C......Page 246
Timescale Calibration......Page 247
Calibration Based on Tree Rings......Page 248
Other Calibration Schemes......Page 250
Cause of the Long-term 14C Decline......Page 251
Change in Ocean Operation......Page 252
Radiocarbon and Solar Irradiance......Page 253
Ocean Uptake of 14CO2 and CO2......Page 255
Terrestrial Uptake of 14CO2 and CO2......Page 258
References......Page 259
Introduction......Page 262
Flux of Radon from Soils to the Atmosphere......Page 264
Short-lived Daughters of 222Rn in the Atmosphere......Page 266
210Pb and Its Progeny......Page 267
Atmospheric Production of Cosmogenic Nuclides......Page 273
35'S and the Kinetics of SO2 Oxidation and Deposition......Page 274
Phosphorus Isotopes......Page 275
Temporal and Spatial Variation......Page 276
Application of the Coupled 7Be-210Pb System to Sources of Atmospheric Species......Page 278
References......Page 279
4.11 The History of Planetary Degassing as Recorded by Noble Gases......Page 281
Surface Inventories......Page 282
Helium Isotopes......Page 283
Neon Isotopes......Page 284
Argon Isotopes......Page 285
Xenon Isotopes......Page 287
Noble Gas Abundance Patterns......Page 288
MORB Fluxes and Upper-mantle Concentrations......Page 289
Other Mantle Fluxes......Page 290
Subduction Fluxes......Page 291
The 40K--40Ar Budget......Page 292
The 129I--129Xe and 244Pu--136Xe Budgets......Page 293
Early Earth Degassing......Page 294
Degassing from One Mantle Reservoir......Page 295
Multiple Mantle Reservoirs......Page 296
Interacting Reservoirs......Page 297
Open-system Models......Page 300
Boundaries within the Mantle......Page 301
Degassing of the Crust......Page 302
Formation Time of the Crust......Page 303
Present Degassing......Page 304
Carbon......Page 305
Nitrogen......Page 306
Degassing of Other Terrestrial Planets......Page 308
Mars......Page 309
Venus......Page 310
Conclusions......Page 311
References......Page 312
4.12 The Origin of Noble Gases and Major Volatiles in the Terrestrial Planets......Page 319
Characteristics of Terrestrial-planet Volatiles......Page 320
Atmospheric Noble-gas Abundance Patterns......Page 321
Atmospheric Argon......Page 322
Terrestrial Atmospheric Xenon......Page 323
Martian Atmospheric Xenon Isotopes......Page 325
Noble-gas Isotopes in the Terrestrial Mantel......Page 326
Nonradiogenic Xenon Isotopes in the Martian Mantle......Page 327
Major Volatiles......Page 328
Adsorption on Accreting Materials......Page 330
Gravitational Capture......Page 331
Accretion of Comets......Page 332
Early Losses of Noble Gases to Space......Page 333
Hydrodynamic Escape......Page 334
The Origin of Terrestrial Noble Gases......Page 336
The Origin of Noble Gases on Venus......Page 338
The Origin of Noble Gases on Mars......Page 339
Conclusions......Page 341
References......Page 342
Appendix 1. Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 348
Appendix 2. Table of Isotopes......Page 349
Appendix 3. The Geologic Timescale......Page 353
Appendix 4. Useful Values......Page 354