The Age of the Dictators: A Study of the European Dictatorships, 1918-53

Cover
Title
Dedication
Copyright
Contents
Preface
List of maps
Maps
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Part One: The origins of the dictatorships
	Chapter 1 The years of crisis, 1890-1918
		Introduction
		Proto-Fascism
			The revolt against materialism, rationalism and liberalism
			The alliance of nationalism and Socialism
		Marxism and the Revolutionary Left
			In Western and Central Europe
			In Russia
		The Impact of the First World War
			Russia
			Austria-Hungary
			Germany
			Italy
		Assessment
		Documents
Part Two: The legacy of war and partial recovery
	Chapter 2 The victory of Leninism in Russia, 1917-27
		Introduction
		The February and October Revolutions
			The February Revolution
			The Provisional Government
			The Kornilov coup
			Lenin and the Bolshevik Party
			The October Revolution
		The early months after the Bolshevik seizure of power, October 1917-January 1918
			The Constituent Assembly
		Ending the war with Germany: the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
		The Civil War
			Military operations
			Allied intervention
			Why Was a Red rather than a White Dictatorship triumphant by December 1920?
			The defeat of the leftist opposition
			The development of the Cheka
			Creation of a one-party dictatorship
			The emergence of the Lenin cult
			War Communism
			The cultural civil war
		The NEP
			The ban on factionalism
		The creation of the USSR
			The recreation of the Russian Empire
			The 1924 constitution
		Lenin\'s death and the battle for the succession, 1922-8
			Lenin\'s death
			The defeat of Trotsky and the United Opposition
			The defeat of Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky
		The NEP years: the attempt to create a new Russia
			The peasantry and the NEP
			The workers
			Was the NEP bound to fail?
		Bolshevik Russia and the world, 1918-27
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 3 Italy: the creation of the Fascist state, 1918-29
		Introduction
		The post-war crisis of the Liberal state, 1919-22
			The end of transformismo
			The \'mutilated peace\' and the Fiume incident
			Economic and social problems
		Mussolini and the rise of Fascism
			The resurgence of Fascism
			From movement to party
			The \'march\' on Rome
		The consolidation of power, 1922-5
			The Acerbo Electoral Law and the election of April 1924
			The Matteotti Affair and its consequences
		The growth of the totalitarian state, 1925-9
			Party-state relations
			The police state
			The development of the corporatism
			The economy: the \'battles\' for the lira and for grain
			Church-state relations
		Foreign policy, 1922-9
			The Corfu crisis
			Italy, Britain and France
			The Balkans and the colonies
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 4 The vacuum of power and the rise of authoritarianism, 1918-29
		Introduction
		Central, Eastern and Southern Europe
			Hungary: the defeat of the Soviet dictatorship
			Bulgaria
			Romania
		Spain
		1926: the year of the four coups in Greece, Poland, Portugal and Lithuania
			Greece
			Poland
			Portugal and Lithuania
		Yugoslavia
		Austria
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 5 Weimar Germany: the seedbed of Nazism?
		Introduction
		The defeat of the revolutionary and authoritarian challenges, 1918-23
			The revolution of 1918-19
			The Weimar constitution
			The Treaty of Versailles
			Containment of the Left and re-emergence of the Right
		The Ruhr occupation, 1923-4
		The growth of the Nazi party and the Munich putsch
		Stabilization, 1924-9
			German economic recovery
			The peaceful erosion of the Versailles Treaty
			Structural problems of the Republic
			The unpopularity of the Republic
		Hitler and the Nazi party, 1925-9
		Assessment
		Documents
Part Three the 1930s: The impact of the Great Depression
	Chapter 6 The collapse of Weimar and the triumph of National Socialism, 1930-4
		Introduction
		The impact of the Great Depression
		The fall of the Grand Coalition
		Brüning, the \'Hunger Chancellor\', March 1930-May 1932
			The election of September 1930
			Brüning\'s second government, September 1930-May 1932
		The Papen and Schleicher cabinets, June 1932-January 1933
			The coup against Prussia
			The elections of 31 July and 6 November 1932
			The Schleicher government, 4 December 1932-30 January 1933
		The failure to contain Hitler
			The election of 5 March 1933
			The Enabling Act
		Gleichschaltung and the creation of the one-party state
		The defeat of the \'second revolution\'
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 7 The Third Reich, 1933-9
		Introduction
		The political structure of the Third Reich
			Central government
			The Nazi Party
			The SS state
			The role of Hitler
		The economy, 1933-9
			Kick-starting the economy
			Agriculture
			Rearmament and the Four-Year Plan, 1933-6
			Was there a growing economic crisis by 1939?
		The Volksgemeinschaft
			Influencing a new Nazi generation: education and youth movements
			The peasantry
			Women and the family
			The workers and the Volksgemeinschaft
			Selling the Volksgemeinschaft: the Reich Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda
			The churches and the Volksgemeinschaft
			Policing the Volksgemeinschaft
		Race and eugenics
			The non-Jewish racial minorities
			The Jews
			Hitler\'s role in the formulation of anti-Semitic policy: the structuralist-intentionalist debate
		Foreign policy
			The historical debate on Hitler\'s foreign policy
			The first three years
			The Anschluss
			The Sudeten crisis and the destruction of Czechslovakia, March 1938-April 1939
			The attack on Poland and the Anglo-French declaration of war
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 8 The development of Italian Fascism, 1929-39
		Introduction
		The Duce and his government
			The development of totalitarianism
		Propaganda
		The impact of Fascism on the educational system
			Fascist youth groups
		Fascism and the Italian people
			The workers
			The peasantry
			Welfare
			Women
		The Catholic Church and the Fascist regime
		Fascism accelerates, 1936-9: the Fascist cultural revolution
			The anti-bourgeois campaign
			The reform of custom
			Anti-Semitism
		The economy, 1930-9
			The impact of the Depression
			Autarky
			Preparing the economy for war
			Was Fascism economically a failure?
		Foreign policy, 1933-9
			The historians and Fascist foreign policy in the 1930s
			Mussolini and Germany, 1933-5
			The Ethiopian War
			The Spanish Civil War
			The German alliance
			Italian neutrality, September 1939-June 1940
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 9 The Spanish Civil War and the beginning of the Franco regime
		Introduction
		The Second Republic
			The Republican Socialist coalition, 1931-3
			The revival of the Right
			The bienio negro or \'two black years\'
			The slide to civil war, February-May 1936
			The military coup of 18 July 1936
		The Civil War
			The outline of events
			The Great Powers and Spain. 1936-9
		The Republic and the Civil War, 1936-9
			The social and economic revolution
			The restoration of discipline
			The role of the Communists
			Attempted consolidation: the Negrín ministry, 1937-9
		The Nationalists and the Civil War
			Forging a united Nationalist regime
			Policies of Franco\'s wartime regime
			Did Franco establish a Fascist state in 1939?
			Economic policy
			Foreign policy
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 10 Stalin and the second revolution, 1927-41
		Introduction
		Collectivization and the end of the NEP
			The consequences
		Industrializaton and the Five-Year Plans, 1928-41
			Formulating the first Five-Year Plan
			Implementing, the Five-Year Plans, 1929-41
		The purges, show trials and the Terror
			The Kirov assassination
			The show trials
			The Ezhovshchina or the Great Purges
			Assessment of the purges
		Life in Stalinist Russia, 1929-41
			The cultural revolution
			The urban revolution
			The new working class
			Women and the family in the USSR
		The creation of the Stalinist political system
			From oligarch to dictator: the evolution of Stalin\'s power
			The Stalin cult
		Foreign policy
			The rise of Hitler
			The Sudeten crisis, 1938
			The Nazi-Soviet Pact
			The outbreak of war with Nazi Germany
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 11 Institutionalized authoritarianism
		Introduction
		Poland and the Baltic states
		Hungary and Austria: the successor states
			Hungary
			Austria
		Romania and the Balkan states
		Portugal
		Assessment
		Documents
PART FOUR: The dictators and the Second World War
	Chapter 12 Europe under German domination
		Introduction
		The German occupation of Western Europe and the invasion of Russia, June 1940-June 1941
		Europe under German Domination, 1939-44
			Western Europe
			Vichy France and the \'national revolution\'
			Spain
			South-Eastern Europe
			Eastern Europe
		The Holocaust
			Historians and the Holocaust
			The road to the extermination camps
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 13 Nazi Germany: the home front
		Introduction
		Führer, government and party
			The Führer state
			Policing the home front
			The SS
			The party
		The war economy
			The impact of Albert Speer
			The labour problem
		The Volksgemeinschaft at war
			Women and the family
			Youth and the war
			The workers
		Support, Resistenz and opposition
			The plot of 20 July 1944
		The end of the Third Reich
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 14 Fascist Italy at war
		Introduction
		Italy at war, 1940-1
		The home front
			The economy
			The crisis of \'disappointed expectation\', December 1940-Marcb 1941
			The decline of the PNF
		Mussolini\'s overthrow
		The Salò Republic
		The collapse of the Republic, 1944-5
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 15 Stalinism and the Great Patriotic War
		Introduction
		Military events, June 1941-May 1945
		The impact of the war on Stalin and the Communist Party
			Stalin
			The party
			A new structure of government emerges
		Propaganda and control
		The economy
			The evacuation of plant
			War Production: crisis and recovery, 1942-5
			The mobilization of labour
			Agriculture
		The Soviet people and the war
			A society in convulsion
			The mobilization of women
			\'A breath of fresh air\'
			The nationalities
		Foreign policy
			Poland and Eastern Europe
		Assessment
		Documents
	Chapter 16 The survivors: the USSR, Spain and Portugal
		Introduction
		The USSR
			Economic reconstruction
			Industrial recovery
			Agriculture
			Late Stalinism
			The emergence of the Quintet
			The Leningrad and Gosplan Affairs and the Doctor\'s Plot
			The Communist Party, 1945-53
			The Russian peoples and the post-war period
		Late Stalinist foreign policy
			Iran and Turkey
			Europe
			The Far East
		Spain and Portugal
			The Franco Regime
			Portugal: Salazar survives
		Assessment
		Documents
Part Five Assessment
	Chapter 17 The dual triumph of Western democracy and Marxism-Leninism
Further reading
Glossary
Index