Textbook of veterinary diagnostic radiology

Cover
Textbook of Veterinary Diagnostic Radiology
Copyright Page
Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Section
I Physics and Principles of Interpretation
1 Radiation Protection and Physics of Diagnostic Radiology
	Basic Properties of X-Rays
	Radiation Protection
		Radiation Units
			Exposure
			Absorbed Dose
			Dose Equivalent
		Radiation Safety
		Practical Considerations
			Distance
			Time
			Shielding
		Radiation Supervisor
		Personnel Monitoring
		Basic Radiation Safety Rules for Diagnostic Radiology
	Production of X-Rays
	Interaction of Radiation With Matter
		Coherent Scattering
		Photoelectric Effect
		Compton Scattering
	Basic Concept of Making a Radiograph
		Film Blackness and Opacity
	Factors Affecting Image Detail
		Motion
		Focal Spot Size
		Intensifying Screens
		Grids
	Distortion
	Factors Affecting Contrast
		Radiographic Technique
		Film Fogging
	Film Processing
	References
	Electronic Resources
2 Digital Radiographic Imaging
	What Is Digital Radiographic Imaging?
	The Digital Image File
	The Components of a Digital Image
	Digital Radiography Acquisition Hardware
		Computed Radiography
		Direct Digital Radiography
			Indirect Flat-Panel Detectors
			Direct Flat-Panel Detectors
			Charged-Coupled Device
	Image Processing and Viewing
	Digital Versus Analog Imaging
		Reduced Expendable Supply Cost and Elimination of Darkroom
		Contrast Optimization and Exposure Latitude
			Contrast Optimization
			Exposure Latitude
		Image Post-Processing
	Improved Image Accessibility and Consolidated Image Storage
		Enhanced Portability Enables Consultation
		An Opportunity to Change the Imaging Paradigm
	Artifacts
	References
	Electronic Resources
3 Canine and Feline Dental Radiographic Technique
	Dental Nomenclature
	Projection Geometry
		Image Distortion
		Paralleling and Bisecting Angle Techniques
		Object Localization
	Making Dental Radiographs
		Armamentarium for Making Dental Radiographs
			Patient/Image Receptor Positioning
			Image Receptors
				X-ray Film.
				Digital Image Receptors.
					Photostimulable Phosphor (Indirect).
					Direct Digital Image Receptors.
			Dental Radiograph Machines
				Generator.
				Control Unit.
				Tube Head.
				Extension Arm and Mounting.
			Safety
		Standard Views for the Dog and Cat
		Special Radiographs
			Feline Patient
			Applicable Canine and Feline Radiographs
	References
4 Physics of Ultrasound Imaging
	Physical Principles of Ultrasound Waves
	Ultrasound Wave Interaction With Matter
	Transducers
	Display
	Basic Scanner Controls
	Principles of Interpretation
	Artifacts
	Doppler Techniques
	Doppler Modes
	Doppler Artifacts
	References
5 Principles of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	The Role of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Veterinary Practice
	Image Formation: General Concepts
	Computed Tomography
		Computed Tomography System Geometry
		Image Formation
		Image Display
		Contrast-Enhanced Procedures
	Cone-Beam Computed Tomography
	Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Instrumentation
		Main Magnetic Field and Radiofrequency Energy
		Spins, Excitation, and Relaxation
		Spin Echo Sequences
		Tissue Contrast
		Magnetic Resonance Signal Localization
		Selection of Spin Echo Sequences
		Gradient Recalled Sequences
		Contrast Media
		Preparatory Pulses
		Other Magnetic Resonance Sequences
		Image Quality and Imaging Time
		Artifacts
		Impact of Magnetic Field Strength
	References
	Electronic Resources
6 Radiographic, Computed Tomography, and Magnetic Resonance Contrast Media
	Introduction
	Radiographic Contrast Media
	Barium Contrast Agents
		Development
		Adverse Reactions
		Barium Impregnated Polyethylene Spheres (BIPS)
	Iodine–Based Contrast Media
		Development
		Adverse Reactions
			Osmolality
			Ionicity and Chemical Toxicity
			Acute and Late Adverse Reactions
			Contrast Medium-Induced Nephropathy (CIN)
			Effects on Thyroid Function
	Negative Contrast Agents
	Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Media
		Development
		Adverse Effects
			Use of Gadolinium-Based Contrast Media for Radiography
			Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis
	Ultrasound Contrast Media
		Development
			Properties and Principles of Ultrasound Contrast Imaging
		Adverse Reactions
	References
7 Introduction to Radiographic Interpretation
	Image Formation and Differential Absorption
	Radiographic Opacities
	Radiographic Geometry and Thinking in Three Dimensions
		Magnification and Distortion
		Unfamiliar Image
		Loss of Volumetric Perception
		Superimposition
		Border Effacement (Silhouette Sign)
	Role of Perception in Interpretation
		Naming Radiographic Projections
		Viewing Radiographs
		Radiographic Interpretation
	References
	Electronic Resources
Section
II The Axial Skeleton: Canine, Feline, and Equine
8 Radiographic Anatomy of the Axial Skeleton
	References
	Electronic Resources
9 Basic Principles of Radiographic Interpretation of the Axial Skeleton
	Skull
		Positioning: Dog and Cat
		Positioning: Horse
		Radiographic Technique: Dog and Cat
		Radiographic Technique: Horse
		Ancillary Factors
		Interpretation Paradigm
	Spine
		Positioning: Dog and Cat
		Positioning: Horse
		Radiographic Technique: Dog and Cat
		Radiographic Technique: Horse
		Incidental Factors
		Interpretation Paradigm
	References
	Electronic Resources
10 Canine and Feline Dental Disease
	Normal Radiographic Anatomy
	Dental Nomenclature
	Orientation of Images
	Tooth and Supporting Structures
		Anatomy of the Teeth and the Supporting Structures
		Anatomic Landmarks in the Maxilla and Mandible
		Dental Formulas in the Dog and Cat
		Deciduous Teeth
		Tooth Eruption
		Normal Physiologic Changes Due to Maturation
	Dental Radiology: Disease Processes
		Anatomic and Developmental Dental Abnormalities
		Abnormal Number of Teeth
		Altered Morphology of Teeth
	Periodontal Disease
		Etiology of Periodontal Disease
		Dental Radiology and Periodontal Disease
		Feline Periodontal Disease
	Diseases of the Tooth Surface
		Abrasion/Attrition
		Caries
	Endodontic Disease
		Clinical Signs of Endodontic Disease
		Radiographic Signs of Endodontic Disease
		Lesions Imitating Endodontic Lesions
		Condensing Osteitis
		Osteosclerosis
		Osteomyelitis
	Tooth Resorption
		Tooth Resorption in the Feline Patient
		Tooth Resorption in the Canine Patient
	Tooth Trauma
		Tooth Luxation/Avulsion
		Tooth Fractures
		Tooth Fracture Classification
	Odontogenic Cysts
	Dentigerous Cysts
	Eruption Cysts
	Periapical Cysts (Radicular Cyst)
	Lateral Periodontal Cyst
	Odontogenic Keratocyst or Canine Odontogenic Parakeratinized Cyst
	Odontogenic Tumors
	Epithelial Tumors
		Ameloblastoma
		Amyloid-Producing Odontogenic Tumor
		Feline Inductive Odontogenic Tumor
		Mesenchymal Tumors
			Peripheral Odontogenic Fibromas
		Mixed Mesenchymal and Epithelial Tumors
			Odontomas
	References
11 The Cranial Nasal Cavities
	Normal Anatomy
		Calvaria and Associated Structures
		Nasal Passages and Paranasal Sinuses
		Tympanic Bullae and Temporomandibular Joint
		Cross-Sectional Imaging
	Congenital Anomalies
		Hydrocephalus
		Occipital Dysplasia
		Occipital Bone Malformation and Syringomyelia (Chiari-Like Malformation)
		Temporomandibular Joint Dysplasia
		Mucopolysaccharidosis
	Metabolic Anomalies
	Neoplastic Abnormalities
		Nasal Tumors
		Mandibular and Maxillary Tumors
		Multilobular Osteochondrosarcoma
		Other Tumors of the Cranium
	Infectious Disorders
		Nasal Aspergillosis
		Nasal Rhinitis and Foreign Bodies
		Otitis
	Traumatic Injuries
	Miscellaneous Diseases
		Craniomandibular Osteopathy
		Calvarial Hyperostosis
	References
	Electronic Resources
12 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Features of Brain Disease in Small Animals
	Basic Magnetic Resonance Examination of the Brain
		Rationale for Sequence Selection
		Putting It All Together
		Secondary Effects of Focal Intracranial Disease
		Know Normal Anatomy
	Common Intracranial Conditions in Small Animals and Their Magnetic Resonance Imaging Characteristics
		Developmental Conditions of the Brain
		Hydrocephalus and Supracollicular Fluid Accumulations
		Caudal Occipital Malformation Syndrome
		Inherent Disorders in Brain Metabolism
		Nutritional, Metabolic, and Toxic Disorders of the Brain
		Inflammatory Conditions of the Brain
	Miscellaneous Conditions
	Brain Neoplasia
		Extra-axial Tumors
		Choroid Plexus Tumors and Ependymomas
		Pituitary Tumors
		Intra-axial Tumors: Glioma
	Invasive Extracranial Tumors
		Nasal Tumors
		Cranial Nerve Tumors
		Other Primary Tumors and Metastatic Tumors
	Vascular Disruptions
		Occlusive Brain Infarction
		Hemorrhagic Infarction
	References
	Electronic Resources
13 The Equine Head
	Radiography Versus Other Imaging Modalities
	Abnormalities of the Equine Head
		Rostral Head (Incisive Region and Rostral Mandible)
		Mandible
		Nasal Cavity, Paranasal Sinuses
		Skull and Hyoid Apparatus
		Brain
		Guttural Pouch and Larynx
	References
	Electronic Resources
14 Canine and Feline Vertebrae
	Anatomic Considerations
	Anomalies of the Vertebral Column
		Block Vertebrae
		Hemivertebrae
		Transitional Vertebrae
		Spina Bifida
		Atlantoaxial Subluxation
		Cervical Spondylomyelopathy
	Fracture and Luxation
	Intervertebral Disc Disease
	Inflammatory Conditions
		Spondylitis, Vertebral Osteomyelitis, and Vertebral Physitis
		Discospondylitis
	Degenerative Conditions
		Spondylosis Deformans
		Osteoarthritis of the Dorsal Intervertebral Articular Process Joints
		Cauda Equina Syndrome
	Neoplasia
	Metabolic and Unclassified Conditions
		Disseminated Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis
		Mucopolysaccharidosis
		Osteopenia
	References
	Electronic Resources
15 Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography Features of Canine and Feline Spinal Cord Disease
	Normal Appearance of the Spine on Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Normal Anatomy
		Computed Tomography
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	Intervertebral Disc Disease
		The Normal Intervertebral Disc
		Classification of Intervertebral Disc Disease
		Computed Tomography of Intervertebral Disc Disease
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Intervertebral Disc Disease
			Regional Characteristics of Intervertebral Disc Disease
				Cervical Intervertebral Disc Disease.
				Thoracolumbar Intervertebral Disc Disease.
				Sacrocaudal Disc Herniation.
				Lumbosacral Stenosis.
				Foraminal Disc Extrusion.
			Compressive and Noncompressive Hydrated Nucleus Pulposus Extrusion
	Cervical Spondylomyelopathy
		Computed Tomography of Cervical Spondylomyelopathy
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Cervical Spondylomyelopathy
	Cystic Changes of the Spine
		Spinal Arachnoid Diverticula
		Epidermoid and Dermoid Cysts or Sinuses
		Articular Process Cysts
	Spinal Tumors
		Extradural Tumors
		Intradural-Extramedullary Tumors
			Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors
			Meningioma
			Nephroblastoma
		Intramedullary Tumors
			Tumors With Variable Spinal Distribution
				Histiocytic Sarcoma.
				Lymphoma.
				Hemangiosarcoma.
	Myelomalacia
	Ischemic Myelopathy
	Spinal Trauma
	Inflammatory/Infectious Conditions
		Discospondylitis
		Spinal Epidural Empyema
		Meningomyelitis
	Vertebral Anomalies
	Syringomyelia
	References
	Electronic Resources
Section
III The Appendicular Skeleton: Canine, Feline, and Equine
III The Appendicular Skeleton: Canine, Feline, and Equine
	16 Radiographic Anatomy of the Appendicular Skeleton
		References
17 Principles of Radiographic Interpretation of the Appendicular Skeleton
	Positioning: Dog and Cat
	Positioning: Horse
	Oblique Projections
	Aggressive Versus Nonaggressive Bone Lesions
		Destruction of the Cortex
		Periosteal Reaction
		Transition Zone
		Consequences of an Aggressive Lesion
		Incidental Factors
		Interpretation Paradigm
	References
	Electronic Resources
18 Orthopedic Diseases of Young and Growing Dogs and Cats
	Disorders Primarily Affecting Joints
		Osteochondrosis and Osteochondrosis Dissecans
			Radiographic Signs
		Elbow Dysplasia
		Ununited Anconeal Process
			Radiographic Signs
		Fragmented Medial Coronoid Process
			Radiographic Signs
				Congenital Radial Head Luxation.
				Radiographic Findings.
		Aseptic Necrosis of the Femoral Head (Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease)
			Radiographic Signs
		Spontaneous Capital Physeal Fracture of Cats
			Radiographic Findings
	Disorders Primarily Affecting Bone
		Agenesis or Malformation of Single or Multiple Bones
			Agenesis and Hypoplasia
				Radiographic Signs.
			Polymelia
				Radiographic Signs.
	Generalized Bone Disorders
		Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
			Radiographic Signs
		Osteogenesis Imperfecta
			Radiographic Signs
		Panosteitis
			Radiographic Signs
		Osteopetrosis
			Radiographic Signs
	Epiphyseal Dysplasias
		Congenital Hypothyroidism
			Radiographic Signs
		Mucopolysaccharidosis
			Radiographic Signs
		Multiple Epiphyseal Dysplasia of Beagles
			Radiographic Signs
	Disorders Primarily Affecting the Metaphysis and Physis
		Osteochondral Dysplasias
		Chondrodysplasia of Alaskan Malamutes
			Radiographic Signs
		Chondrodysplasia of Norwegian Elkhounds
			Radiographic Signs
		Osteochondrodysplasia of Scottish Fold Cats
			Radiographic Signs
		Ocular Chondrodysplasia of Labrador Retrievers
			Radiographic Signs
		Rickets
			Radiographic Findings
		Hypertrophic Osteodystrophy
			Radiographic Signs
		Multiple Cartilaginous Exostosis
			Radiographic Signs
		Retained Cartilage Core
			Radiographic Signs
		Incomplete Ossification of the Humeral Condyle
			Radiographic Signs
		Radiographic Signs
	References
	Electronic Resources
19 Fracture Healing and Complications in Dogs
	Bone Tissue
	Bone Healing
	Factors Affecting Bone Healing
	Promoting Fracture Healing
	Fracture Identification
	Fracture Classification
	Radiographic Evaluation of Bone Healing
	Complications
	References
	Electronic Resources
20 Radiographic Features of Bone Tumors and Bone Infections in Dogs and Cats
	Primary Bone Tumors
		Canine Osteosarcoma
		Feline Osteosarcoma
		Osteosarcoma as a Secondary Event
	Fungal Bone Infections
	Bacterial Bone Infections
	Protozoan Bone Infections
	Metastatic Bone Cancer
	Subungual Tumors Versus Subungual Infections
	References
	Electronic Resources
21 Radiographic Signs of Joint Disease in Dogs and Cats
	Radiographic Signs of Joint Disease
		Increased Synovial Volume
		Altered Thickness of the Joint Space
		Decreased Subchondral Bone Opacity and Bone Cyst
		Increased Subchondral Bone Opacity
		Altered Perichondral Bone Opacity
		Articular Soft Tissue Mineralization
		Intraarticular Calcified Bodies
		Joint Displacement or Incongruency
		Osteophytes
		Entheses and Enthesophytes
		Intraarticular Gas
	Sesamoid Bones
		Meniscal Ossicles in Cats
	Contrast Radiography of Joints
	Sesamoid Disease
		Degenerative Joint Disease
			Radiographic Signs of Progression of Osteoarthritis in Dogs
			Osteoarthritis in Cats
	Hip Dysplasia
	Trauma Involving the Osseous Components of Joints
	Sprains Affecting Joints
	Tendons, Desmopathies
		Shoulder
			Bicipital Tendon (Biceps Brachii)
			Ruptured Bicipital Tendon
		The Carpus
		The Stifle
		Tarsus
	Hypervitaminosis a
	Mucopolysaccharidosis
	Scottish Fold Chondro-Osseous Dysplasia
	Hemarthrosis
	Septic Arthritis
		Septic Arthritis in Cats
	Immune-Mediated Arthropathies
		Rheumatoid Arthritis
		Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
		Feline Noninfectious Polyarthritis
			Periosteal Proliferative Form
			Erosive Form
			Feline Nonerosive Polyarthritis
		Hypertrophic Osteopathy
	The Synovium
		Villonodular Synovitis
		Synovial Osteochondromas
		Joint Neoplasia
	References
	Electronic Resources
22 Equine Stifle and Tarsus
	The Stifle
		Radiographic Examination
		Ultrasonography for Supplemental Stifle Imaging
		Diseases of the Femoropatellar Joint
			Osteochondrosis
			Patellar Fragmentation
			Upward Patellar Fixation
			Patellar Luxation
			Osteomyelitis of the Patella
		Diseases of the Femorotibial Joints
			Subchondral Cystlike Lesions
			Degenerative Joint Disease
			Radiographic Signs of Meniscal and Meniscal Ligament Damage
			Radiographic Signs of Cruciate Ligament and Collateral Ligament Damage
		Fractures Involving the Stifle
			Patellar Fractures
			Tibial and Femoral Fractures
			Fibular Fractures
		Miscellaneous Conditions Involving the Stifle
			Calcinosis Circumscripta
			Septic Arthritis and Osteomyelitis
			Periarticular Soft Tissue Swelling
	The Tarsus
		Radiographic Examination
		Diseases of the Tarsocrural Joint
			Osteochondrosis and Subchondral Cystlike Lesions
			Collateral Ligament Injury
		Diseases of the Distal Intertarsal and Tarsometatarsal Joints
			Degenerative Joint Disease
			Incomplete Ossification of Tarsal Bones and Tarsal Collapse
			Subchondral Cystlike Lesions
		Diseases of the Talocalcaneal and Proximal Intertarsal Joints
			Degenerative Joint Disease
		Fractures Involving the Tarsus
			Fractures of the Distal Tibia and Malleolar Fractures
			Central and Third Tarsal Bones and Proximal Metatarsal Fractures
		Miscellaneous Conditions Involving the Tarsus
			Septic Arthritis
			Osteomyelitis of the Calcaneus and Enthesopathies of the Tuber Calcanei
			Abnormalities of the Sustentaculum Tali and Tarsal Sheath Tenosynovitis
			Proximal Insertion Suspensory Desmopathy and Enthesopathy
	References
	Electronic Resources
23 Equine Carpus
	Anatomy
	Normal Variations
	Abnormalities
		Developmental
			Distal Radial Physitis/Epiphysitis
			Incomplete Ossification of Carpal Bones
			Angular Limb Deformities
			Osseous or Subchondral Cystlike Lesions
		Soft Tissue Problems
			Periarticular Soft Tissues
				Carpal Hygroma.
				Distention/Synovitis of Extensor Carpi Radialis, Common Digital Extensor, or Long Digital Extensor Tendon Sheaths.
				Herniation of Carpal Joint Synovial Membrane.
				Synovitis.
					Calcinosis Circumscripta.
			Conditions Associated With Swelling on the Palmar Aspect of the Carpal Region
				Distention of the Carpal Sheath.
				Osteochondroma of the Distal Caudal Aspect of the Radius and Radial Physeal Exostoses.
				Mineralized Opacities Within the Periarticular Soft Tissues.
		Osseous and Osteochondral Abnormalities
			Carpal Bone Sclerosis
			Carpal Bone Chip Fractures
				Dorsal Aspect.
				Palmar Aspect.
			Carpal Bone Slab Fractures
			Comminuted and Multiple Fractures
			Fractures of the Accessory Carpal Bone
			Periosteal New Bone on the Dorsal Aspect of the Carpal Bones, the Distal Aspect of the Radius, and the Proximal Aspect of the Metacarpal Bones
			Hypertrophic Osteopathy
		Articular Problems
			Luxation/Subluxation
			Osteoarthritis
				Antebrachiocarpal Joint.
				Middle Carpal Joint.
				Carpometacarpal Joint.
			Sepsis
				Septic Arthritis and Osteomyelitis.
	References
	Electronic Resources
24 Equine Metacarpus and Metatarsus
	Anatomy
	Normal Radiographic and Ultrasonographic Variations
	Abnormalities
		Soft Tissue Injuries
			Proximal Suspensory Desmitis and Desmopathy
			Suspensory Body Injuries
			Suspensory Branch Injuries
			Desmitis and Desmopathy of the Accessory Ligament of the Deep Digital Flexor Tendon
			Deep Digital Flexor Tendon Injury
			Superficial Digital Flexor Tendonitis
			Infection of a Digital Flexor Tendon
		Osseous Injuries
			Avulsion Fracture at the Origin of the Suspensory Ligament
			Incomplete Longitudinal Fracture of the Proximopalmar Aspect of the Third Metacarpal Bone
			Dorsoproximal Stress Fractures of the Third Metacarpal and Third Metatarsal Bones
			Dorsal Cortical Stress Disease in the Diaphysis of the Third Metacarpal Bone
			Stress Fractures of the Distal Metaphyseal Region of the Third Metacarpal Bone
			Compression Fracture of the Distal Third Metacarpal Bone Physis
			Incomplete Oblique Sagittal Fractures of the Dorsal Cortex of the Diaphysis of the Third Metacarpal Bone
			Other Fractures of the Third Metacarpal and Third Metatarsal Bones
			Enostosis-Like Lesions and Panosteitis
			Exostoses on the Palmar or Plantar Aspect of the Diaphysis of the Third Metacarpal or Metatarsal Bone
			Hypertrophic Osteopathy
			Exostoses of the Second and Fourth Metacarpal and Metatarsal Bones
			Syndesmopathy Between the Third and Second and Third and Fourth Metacarpal and Metatarsal Bones
			Fractures of the Second and Fourth Metacarpal and Metatarsal Bones
			Infectious Osteitis and Osteomyelitis
	References
	Electronic Resources
25 Equine Metacarpophalangeal and Metatarsophalangeal Joint
	Anatomy
	Radiographic Examination
	Alternative Imaging Modalities
	Radiographic Interpretation of Diseases of the Metacarpophalangeal/Metatarsophalangeal Articulation
		Joint Effusion
		Villonodular Synovitis
		Supracondylar Lysis
		Degenerative Joint Disease
		Cortisone Arthropathy
		Osteochondrosis
		Septic Arthritis
		Condylar Fractures
		Periarticular Chip Fractures
		Fractures of the Proximal Sesamoids
		Sesamoiditis
		Disuse Atrophy of Bone
	References
	Electronic Resources
26 Equine Phalanges
	Technical Factors
		Patient Preparation
		Recommended Views
	Normal Radiographic Anatomy (Including Variations)
		Osseous Structures
		Soft Tissue
		Articular Cartilage and Collateral Cartilages
		Alternate Imaging of the Foot
	Radiographic Changes Caused by Diseases of the Phalanges
		General Comments
		Strain and Sprain Injuries
	Fracture Disease
		Proximal Phalanx
		Middle Phalanx
		Distal Phalanx
	Infection
		Osteomyelitis and Septic Osteitis
		Septic Arthritis
	Osteoarthritis
	Laminitis
		Radiographic Evaluation of Laminitis
	Flexural Deformity of the Interphalangeal Joints
		Distal Interphalangeal Joint
		Proximal Interphalangeal Joint
		Hyperextension Alignment of the Interphalangeal Joints
	Osseous Cystlike Lesions
	Pedal Osteitis
	Collateral Cartilages
		Ossification/Calcification (Sidebones)
		Infection (Quittor)
	Hoof Balance
	Miscellaneous Diseases Affecting the Phalanges
	References
	Electronic Resources
27 Equine Navicular Bone
	Anatomy
	Indications for Radiography
	Preparation for Radiographic Evaluation
	Radiographic Views
		Dorsoproximal/Palmarodistal Views
		Lateromedial View
		Palmaroproximal/Palmarodistal View
		Dorsopalmar View
	Normal Radiographic Appearance
	Navicular Disease
		Radiographic Signs of Navicular Degeneration
		Proximal Border and Navicular Bone Extremities
		Distal Border Changes
		Flexor Cortex Changes
		Medullary Cavity Changes
		Normal Radiographic Findings
	Fractures
		Osseous Fragments of the Distal Border
		Complete Fractures
		Multipartite Navicular Bone
	Navicular Sepsis
	Miscellaneous Conditions
	Ultrasonographic Evaluation of the Navicular Bone and Associated Soft Tissue Structures
	Magnetic Resonance and Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Navicular Bone
	References
Section
IV The Thoracic Cavity: Canine, Feline, and Equine
28 Principles of Radiographic Interpretation of the Thorax
	Nomenclature
	Positioning: Dog and Cat
		Lateral Views
			Atelectasis
			Cranial Lobe Vessels
			Diaphragm
			Heart
		Ventrodorsal/Dorsoventral View
			Atelectasis
			Caudal Lobe Vessels
			Cardiac Silhouette
			Accessory Lung Lobe
			Dorsoventral, Ventrodorsal, or Both?
	Positioning: Horse
	Radiographic Technique: Dog and Cat
	Radiographic Technique: Horse
	Ancillary Factors
		Body Habitus
		Cutaneous Lesions
	Interpretation Paradigm
	References
	Electronic Resources
29 Canine and Feline Larynx and Trachea
	Anatomic Considerations: Normal Anatomy and Radiographic Technique
	Radiographic Signs of Disease
		Pharyngolarynx
			Masses
			Trauma and Foreign Body
			Brachycephalic Syndrome
			Epiglottic Retroversion
			Pharyngeal Collapse
			Nasopharyngeal Stenosis
			Pharyngitis and Laryngitis
		Trachea
			Masses
			Foreign Bodies
			Rupture/Avulsion and Stenosis
			Hypoplasia
			Tracheitis
			Tracheal Collapse
		Upper Airway Obstruction
	Ultrasound
		Laryngeal Paralysis
		Masses and Foreign Bodies
	Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Pharyngolaryngeal Masses
		Trauma and Foreign Body
		Upper Airway Collapse and Tracheal Hypoplasia
	References
	Electronic Resources
30 Canine and Feline Esophagus
	Relative Value of Radiography, Contrast Esophagraphy, Fluoroscopy, and Alternative Imaging Procedures
	Anatomy and Physiologic Considerations
	Normal Radiographic Appearance
	Survey Radiographic Abnormalities
	Contrast Esophagraphy Techniques
	Dysphagia
	Esophageal Dilatation
		Megaesophagus
		Hiatal Diseases
		Redundant Esophagus
	Foreign Bodies
	Vascular Ring Anomalies
	Inflammatory Diseases
		Esophagitis
		Strictures
	Diverticula, Perforation, and Fistula Formation
	Esophageal Varices
	References
	Electronic Resources
31 Canine and Feline Thoracic Wall
	Normal Radiographic Appearance
	Congenital and Developmental Abnormalities
	Thoracic Wall Trauma
	Rib Tumors and Infection
	Sternebral Tumors and Infection
	Soft Tissue Tumors and Infection
	Alternate Imaging of the Thoracic Wall
		Ultrasound
		Computed Tomography
	References
	Electronic Resources
32 Canine and Feline Diaphragm
	Normal Radiographic Anatomy
	Radiographic Signs of Diaphragmatic Disease
	Diaphragmatic Diseases
		Diaphragmatic Hernias
		Traumatic Diaphragmatic Hernias
		Congenitally Predisposed Diaphragmatic Hernias
		Peritoneopericardial Diaphragmatic Hernias
		Hiatal Hernias
		Gastroesophageal Intussusception
		Peritoneopleural Hernias
		Motor Disturbances of the Diaphragm
		Muscular Dystrophy
	References
	Electronic Resources
33 Canine and Feline Mediastinum
	Normal Anatomy
	Pathologic Mediastinal Conditions
		Mediastinal Shift
		Mediastinal Masses
			Cranioventral Mediastinal Masses
			Dorsal Mediastinal Masses
			Hilar-Region Mediastinal Masses
			Caudoventral Mediastinal Masses
			Some Facts About Mediastinal Lymph Nodes
			Distinguishing a Mediastinal Mass From a Lung Mass
			Confounding Effects of Pleural Fluid
		Pneumomediastinum
	References
	Electronic Resources
34 Canine and Feline Pleural Space
	Pleural Anatomy
	Normal Radiographic Appearance of Pleura and Pleural Thickening
	Pleural Fluid
		Interlobar Fissures, Retraction of Lung Margins, and Retrosternal Opacification
		Asymmetric Distribution of Pleural Fluid
		Horizontal-Beam Radiography
		Pitfalls in Pleural Fluid Diagnosis
		Significance of Pleural Fluid
		Simultaneous Pleural and Peritoneal Fluid
	Pneumothorax
		Lung Retraction From Pneumothorax
		“Elevation” of the Heart From the Sternum
		Some Facts About Pneumothorax
		Tension Pneumothorax
		Pitfalls in Pneumothorax Diagnosis
	References
	Electronic Resources
35 Canine and Feline Cardiovascular System
	Radiographic Signs
		Radiographic Signs of Specific Cardiac Chamber Enlargement
			Left Atrium
			Left Ventricle
			Right Atrium
			Right Ventricle
			Generalized Cardiomegaly
		Radiographic Signs of Major Vessel Enlargement
			Caudal Vena Cava
			Aorta
			Main Pulmonary Artery
		Radiographic Signs of Pulmonary Arterial and Venous Changes
		Congestive Heart Failure
		Acquired Cardiovascular Lesions
			Mitral Insufficiency
			Heartworm Infection
			Cardiomyopathy
			Pericardial Effusion
		Congenital Cardiovascular Lesions
			Patent Ductus Arteriosus
			Pulmonic Stenosis
			Aortic Stenosis
			Ventricular Septal Defect
			Tricuspid Dysplasia
		Reduction in Heart Size
	References
	Electronic Resources
36 Canine and Feline Lung
	Pulmonary Anatomy
	Radiographic Appearance of Normal Lung
	Paradigms for Assessing Pulmonary Disease
		Pattern Recognition Paradigm
			Alveolar Pattern
			Bronchial Pattern
			Interstitial Pattern
				Structured Interstitial Pattern
				Unstructured Interstitial Pattern
		Airway Versus Nonairway Paradigm
	Specific Pulmonary Conditions
		Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema
		Lung Lobe Torsion
	References
	Electronic Resources
37 Equine Lower Respiratory System
	Radiographic Technique
	Normal Anatomy
		Craniodorsal Projection
		Caudodorsal Projection
		Caudoventral Projection
		Cranioventral Projection
			Foals
			Adults
			Heart
	Alternative Imaging Modalities
	Pulmonary Disease
		Pneumonia
		Pulmonary Abscess
		Pulmonary Disease in Foals
		Inflammatory Airway Disease and Recurrent Airway Obstruction
		Exercise-Induced Pulmonary Hemorrhage
		Pulmonary Contusions
		Pulmonary Edema
		Neoplasia
		Alterations in Pulmonary Vasculature
	Pleural Disease
		Pleural Fluid
		Pneumothorax
		Diaphragmatic Hernia
	Mediastinal Disease
		Lymphadenopathy
		Pneumomediastinum
	Tracheal Disease
	Esophageal Disease
	Cardiac Disease
	References
	Electronic Resources
Section
V Abdominal Cavity: Canine and Feline
38 Principles of Radiographic Interpretation of the Abdomen
	Nomenclature
	Preparation
	Positioning—Dog and Cat
		Lateral View
		Ventrodorsal and Dorsoventral Views
	Positioning—Horse
	Radiographic Technique—Dog and Cat
	Radiographic Technique—Horse
	Ancillary Factors
		Body Habitus
		Cutaneous Lesions and Structures
	Interpretation Paradigm
	References
	Electronic Resources
39 Peritoneal Space
	Normal Anatomy and Imaging Procedures
		Anatomy of the Peritoneum
		Radiography of the Peritoneum
		Ultrasound of the Peritoneum
		Computed Tomography of the Peritoneum
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Peritoneum
	Peritoneal and Retroperitoneal Disease
		Decreased Abdominal Surface Visualization
			Peritoneal Effusion
		Peritoneal Metastasis and Steatitis
		Peritoneal Masses
		Retroperitoneal Fluid
		Retroperitoneal Masses
	Increased Abdominal Surface Visualization
		Peritoneal Gas (Pneumoperitoneum)
		Retroperitoneal Gas (Pneumoretroperitoneum)
		Intraabdominal Mineral Opacity
	Normal Anatomy and Imaging of the Abdominal Wall
		Normal Anatomy and Imaging
		Abdominal Wall Abnormalities
		Abdominal Lymph Nodes
			Normal Anatomy and Imaging Techniques
				Anatomy.
			Radiography of Lymph Nodes
			Ultrasound of Lymph Nodes
			Computed Tomography of Lymph Nodes
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Lymph Nodes
		Abnormalities of Abdominal Lymph Nodes
			Imaging Findings
	Pancreas
		Normal Anatomy and Imaging Techniques
			Anatomy
			Radiography of the Pancreas
		Ultrasound of the Pancreas
			Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Tomography of the Pancreas
			Scintigraphy of the Pancreas
	Disease of the Pancreas
		Inflammation of the Pancreas (Pancreatitis)
		Neoplasia of the Pancreas
	Adrenal Glands
		Normal Anatomy and Imaging Techniques
			Anatomy
			Radiography
		Ultrasound of the Adrenal Glands
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Abnormalities of the Adrenal Glands
			Increase in Size and/or Attenuation
				Radiography.
				Ultrasound.
				Computed Tomography.
			Decrease in Size
	References
	Electronic Resources
40 Liver and Spleen
	Radiology of the Liver
		Hepatomegaly
		Hepatic Opacity
		Imaging of Portosystemic Shunts
		Computed Tomographic Imaging of Hepatic Masses
		Hepatic Ultrasound
		Abnormal Sonographic Appearance of the Liver
		Disease of the Biliary System
		Vascular Disease
	Radiology of the Spleen
		Splenic Size
		Ultrasound of the Spleen
		Abnormal Splenic Sonographic Findings
			Diffuse Disease
	References
	Electronic Resources
41 Kidneys and Ureters
	Normal Anatomy and Imaging Procedures
		Radiography
			Indications
			Technique
			Normal Imaging Findings
		Excretory Urography
			Indications
			Technique
			Normal Imaging Findings
		Antegrade Ultrasound-Guided Pyelography
			Indications
			Technique
			Normal Imaging Findings
		Ultrasonography
			Indications
			Technique
			Normal Imaging Findings
		Computed Tomography
			Indications
			Technique
			Normal Imaging Findings
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Scintigraphy
	Renal Diseases
		Abnormal Renal Size
			Large Kidneys
			Small Kidneys
		Abnormal Renal Structure
			Diffuse Parenchymal Abnormalities
			Focal or Multifocal Abnormalities
				Renal Mineralization.
				Renal Cysts.
				Perirenal Fluid.
				Renal Mass Lesions.
		Diseases of the Collecting System
			Pyelonephritis
			Hydronephrosis
		Abnormal Renal Function
	Diseases of the Ureters
		Ureteral Obstruction
			Ureteroliths
		Ectopic Ureters
			Ureteroceles
		Ureteral Tumors
		Trauma to the Ureters and Kidney
	References
	Electronic Resources
42 Urinary Bladder
	Normal Anatomy
	Radiographic Signs of Urinary Bladder Disease
	Contrast Cystography
		Cystography Technique
		Cystographic Procedures
		Radiographic Signs With Contrast Cystography
			Mucosal Changes
			Intramural Changes (Urinary Bladder Wall Thickening)
			Filling Defects
			Contrast Leakage Patterns From the Urinary Bladder
		Pitfalls With Cystographic Interpretation
	Sonography
		Intraluminal Changes
			Calculi
			Blood Clots
			Foreign Bodies
		Mural Changes
			Cystitis
			Associated Conditions
			Mural Hemorrhage
			Neoplasia
		Ureterovesicular Junction
		Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Urinary Bladder
	References
	Electronic Resources
43 Urethra
	Anatomy
	Radiography and Urethrography
	Ultrasound Examination of the Urethra
	Diseases of the Urethra
		Urethral Calculi
		Urethral Neoplasia and Inflammation
		Urethral Rupture
		Other Diseases
	References
	Electronic Resources
44 Prostate Gland
	Normal Anatomy and Radiographic Appearance
	Diseases of the Prostate Gland
		Clinical Signs
		Radiographic Changes
	Special Radiographic Procedures for Evaluating the Prostate Gland
	Sonography for Evaluating the Prostate Gland
		Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	References
	Electronic Resources
45 Uterus, Ovaries, and Testes
	Uterus
		Imaging Procedures and Normal Imaging Findings
			Survey Radiographs
			Ultrasound
			Cross Sectional Imaging
		Pregnancy
			Normal Imaging Findings in Pregnancy
			Abnormal Imaging Findings in Pregnancy
				Fetal Demise.
				Dystocia.
		Abnormal Imaging Findings in Uterine Disease
			Uterine Anomalies
			Cystic Endometrial Hyperplasia and Pyometra
			Uterine Stump Disease
			Uterine Neoplasia
			Uterine Torsion
	Ovaries and Testes
		Imaging Procedures
		Normal Findings
		Abnormal Imaging Findings
			Vaginal/Vestibular Mass Lesions
			Other Conditions
	Ovaries
		Imaging Procedures
		Normal Findings
		Abnormal Findings in Ovarian Disease
			Neoplasia
			Cystic Ovarian Disease
	Testicles
		Imaging Procedures
		Normal Findings
		Abnormal Findings in Testicular Disease
			Neoplasia
			Abnormal Location
			Torsion
			Inflammation
			Extratesticular Findings
	Intersex Conditions
	References
46 Stomach
	Normal Anatomy
	Imaging Procedures
		Radiography
			Indications
			Radiographic Technique
			Normal Radiographic Findings
			Gastrography
			Negative Contrast Study of the Stomach (Pneumogastrography)
				Technique for Pneumogastrography
			Positive Contrast Gastrography
				Technique for Positive Contrast Gastrography
				Normal Positive Contrast Gastrographic Findings
			Gastric Ultrasound
				Ultrasound Indications
				Ultrasound Technique
				Normal Ultrasonographic Findings
			Computed Tomography of the Stomach
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Gastric Scintigraphy
	Gastric Diseases
		Displacement
			Displacement With Intact Diaphragm
			Displacement With Rupture or Hernia of the Diaphragm
				Acquired Traumatic Hernia (Traumatic Diaphragmatic Rupture).
				Hiatal or Peritoneopericardial Diaphragmatic Hernia.
				Gastroesophageal Intussusception.
			Displacement Within the Stomach
				Pylorogastric Intussusception.
	Changes in Gastric Shape and Size
		Acute Gastric Dilation
			Gastric Dilation Volvulus
		Chronic Pyloric Obstruction
	Abnormal Gastric Content
		Gastric Foreign Bodies
	Gastric Wall Changes
		Gastric Ulcers
		Gastric Bleeding
		Gastric Neoplasia
		Diffuse Diseases of the Stomach Wall
		Postoperative Stomach
	References
	Electronic Resources
47 Small Bowel
	The Normal Small Bowel
		Radiography
		Ultrasound
		Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Contrast Enhanced Ultrasound
		Contrast Examinations
			Indications
			Technique and General Interpretation
	Abnormal Small Bowel
		Significant Non-Obstructing Foreign Bodies
		Disease Resulting in Bowel Dilation
		Mechanical Obstruction
		Functional Ileus
		Infiltrative Bowel Disease
		Bowel-Associated Masses
		Miscellaneous Small Intestinal Diseases
	References
	Electronic Resources
48 Large Bowel
	Imaging Options for Large Bowel Disease
	Normal Radiographic Anatomy
	Radiographic Techniques of Large Bowel Evaluation
		Survey Radiography
		Compression Radiography
		Barium Enema
		Complications Associated With Contrast Studies
	Radiographic Findings in Large Bowel Disease
	Ultrasonographic Evaluation of the Large Bowel
	Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Large Bowel
	References
	Electronic Resources
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