Textbook of Forensic Science

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: Crime and Society: An Introduction to Criminology
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 The Amalgamation of Criminology and Other Fields
		1.2.1 Criminology and Biology
		1.2.2 Criminology and Anthropology
		1.2.3 Criminology and Psychology
		1.2.4 Criminology and Psychiatry
		1.2.5 Criminology and Criminalistics
		1.2.6 Criminology and Victimology
		1.2.7 Criminology and Penology
		1.2.8 Criminology and Cyber Criminology
	1.3 Crime and Its Definition
	1.4 Classification of Crime
	1.5 Crime and Criminal Behavior
	1.6 Factors in Crime
		1.6.1 Peer Influence
		1.6.2 Biological Factors
		1.6.3 Economic Factors
		1.6.4 Lack of Education
		1.6.5 An Ineffective Legal System
		1.6.6 Cultural Factors
		1.6.7 Effect of the Media
		1.6.8 Parental Factors
		1.6.9 Mental Disorders
		1.6.10 Neurological Factors
	1.7 Victimology
		1.7.1 Victim Precipitation Vs. Victim Facilitation Vs. Victim Provocation
		1.7.2 Types of Victims
		1.7.3 Impact of Victimization
		1.7.4 Compensation to the Victim
	1.8 Punishment
		1.8.1 Theories of Punishment
		1.8.2 Forms of Punishment
	1.9 The Criminal Justice System in India
		1.9.1 Objectives of the Criminal Justice System
		1.9.2 The Structure of the Criminal Justice System
		1.9.3 Components of the Criminal Justice System
			1.9.3.1 Police
				1.9.3.1.1 The Roles and Functions of the Police
			1.9.3.2 Courts
			1.9.3.3 Corrections
		1.9.4 Steps of the Criminal Justice Process
		1.9.5 Administration of Criminal Justice
		1.9.6 Stages of Criminal Justice
	1.10 Juvenile Delinquency
		1.10.1 The Juvenile Justice System in India
		1.10.2 Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency
	1.11 Conclusion
	References
2: Introduction to Forensic Science
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 The Role of Forensic Science in the Criminal Justice System
	2.3 Fields of Forensic Science
		2.3.1 Fingerprints
		2.3.2 Questioned Documents
		2.3.3 Forensic Chemistry
		2.3.4 Forensic Toxicology
		2.3.5 Forensic Biology
		2.3.6 Forensic Anthropology
		2.3.7 Forensic Odontology
		2.3.8 Forensic Serology
		2.3.9 Forensic Physics
		2.3.10 Forensic Ballistics
		2.3.11 Forensic Psychology
		2.3.12 Forensic Biotechnology
		2.3.13 Digital and Cyber Forensics
		2.3.14 Forensic Engineering
		2.3.15 Forensic Nanotechnology
		2.3.16 Forensic Entomology
		2.3.17 Forensic Geology
		2.3.18 Forensic Meteorology
	2.4 Some Common Evidence
	2.5 The Principles of Forensic Science
		2.5.1 The Principle of Exchange
		2.5.2 The Principle of Individuality
		2.5.3 The Principle of Progressive Change
		2.5.4 The Principle of Comparison
		2.5.5 The Principle of Analysis
		2.5.6 The Principle of Circumstantial Facts
		2.5.7 The Principle of Probability
	2.6 Some of the Major Contributors
		2.6.1 Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853)
		2.6.2 Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914)
		2.6.3 Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)
		2.6.4 Sir Edmond Locard
		2.6.5 Dr. Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943)
		2.6.6 Dr. Leon Lattes (1887-1954)
		2.6.7 Dr. Calvin Goddard (1891-1955)
		2.6.8 Albert Osborn (1858-1946)
		2.6.9 Hans Gross (1847-1915)
		2.6.10 Henry Faulds (1843-1930)
		2.6.11 Sir Edward Richard Henry, Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque, and Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose
		2.6.12 William Herschel (1833-1917)
		2.6.13 Paul Kirk (1902-1970)
		2.6.14 Henry C. Lee (1938-Till Present)
		2.6.15 Dr. Lalji Singh (1947-2017)
		2.6.16 Sir Alec Jeffreys (1950-Till Present)
	2.7 Conclusion
	References
3: Forensic Science Laboratories in India
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Brief Historical Overview
	3.3 Forensic Science Laboratories in India
		3.3.1 Central Forensic Science Laboratries
		3.3.2 State Forensic Science Laboratories
	3.4 Role and Functions of FSLs
	3.5 Conclusion
	Bibliography
		Web References
4: Legal Aspects of Forensic Science: A Bird´s Eye View
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Forensic Science: Role and Importance
	4.3 Expert Evidence and Forensic Science
	4.4 Forensic Science As a Tool in Administration of Justice
		4.4.1 Opinion of Handwriting Expert
		4.4.2 Evidence of Seal and Signature
		4.4.3 Evidence of Fingerprint and Footprint Impression
		4.4.4 Medical Evidence
		4.4.5 Medical Examination of Accused
		4.4.6 Medical Examination in Sexual Assault Cases
		4.4.7 Identification of Persons Through DNA
		4.4.8 The Deception Detection Tests
		4.4.9 Ballistic Science
	4.5 Cyber Forensics
	4.6 Forensic Evidence and Rule Against Self Incrimination
	4.7 Evidentiary Value of Expert´s Opinion
	4.8 Conclusion
5: Instruments and Techniques in Forensic Science
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Chromatography
		5.2.1 Column Chromatography
		5.2.2 Paper Chromatography
		5.2.3 Thin Layer Chromatography
		5.2.4 Gas Chromatography
		5.2.5 High Performance Liquid Chromatography
		5.2.6 High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography
	5.3 Microscopy
		5.3.1 Compound Light Microscope
		5.3.2 Comparison Microscope
		5.3.3 Polarizing Microscope
		5.3.4 Fluorescence Microscopy
		5.3.5 Stereomicroscope
		5.3.6 Electron Microscope
			5.3.6.1 Transmission Electron Microscope
			5.3.6.2 Scanning Electron Microscope
	5.4 Spectroscopy
		5.4.1 Atomic Spectroscopy
			5.4.1.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
			5.4.1.2 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
			5.4.1.3 X-Ray Spectroscopy
		5.4.2 Molecular Spectroscopy
			5.4.2.1 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy
			5.4.2.2 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence Spectroscopy
			5.4.2.3 Infrared Spectroscopy
			5.4.2.4 Raman Spectroscopy
			5.4.2.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
	5.5 Electrophoresis
		5.5.1 Gel Electrophoresis
		5.5.2 Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)
		5.5.3 Capillary Electrophoresis
		5.5.4 Immunoelectrophoresis
		5.5.5 Isoelectric Focussing
	5.6 Conclusion
	References
6: Crime Scene Investigation: An Introduction
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Crime Scene Investigation
	6.3 Types of Crime Scenes
		6.3.1 First Responding Officer
	6.4 Steps in Crime Scene Investigation (Fig. 6.4)
		6.4.1 Securing and Isolating Crime Scene
		6.4.2 Crime Scene Survey
		6.4.3 Search for Evidence
		6.4.4 Documentation of the Crime Scene
			6.4.4.1 Note Making
			6.4.4.2 Photography
			6.4.4.3 Sketching
			6.4.4.4 Video-recording
		6.4.5 Collection and Packaging of Evidence
		6.4.6 Forwarding Evidence to the Laboratory
		6.4.7 Interpretation and Presentation of Evidence in a Court
	6.5 Crime Scene Management
		6.5.1 Information Management
		6.5.2 Workforce Management
		6.5.3 Technology Management
		6.5.4 Logistic Management
	6.6 Crime Scene Reconstruction
		6.6.1 Stages in Crime Scene Reconstruction
	6.7 Conclusion
	References
7: Correlation of Postmortem Changes with Time Since Death
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 Death (Thanatology)
		7.1.2 Postmortem Changes
	7.2 Immediate Postmortem Changes
		7.2.1 Permanent Cessation of Brain Functions
		7.2.2 Permanent and Complete Cessation of Circulatory Functions
		7.2.3 Entire and Permanent Cessation of Respiratory Function
	7.3 Early Postmortem Changes
		7.3.1 Postmortem Changes in the Eyes
			7.3.1.1 Loss of Corneal Reflex
			7.3.1.2 Corneal Opacity
			7.3.1.3 Flaccidity of the Eyeball
			7.3.1.4 Pupils Condition
			7.3.1.5 Changes in Retinal Vessels
			7.3.1.6 Chemical Changes
		7.3.2 Pallor Mortis (Postmortem Paleness)
			7.3.2.1 Timing and Applicability
			7.3.2.2 Conditions Simulating Pallor Mortis
	7.4 Algor Mortis or Postmortem Body Temperature Reduction
		7.4.1 Calculation of TSD
		7.4.2 Background
			7.4.2.1 Newton´s Law of Cooling
		7.4.3 Henssge´s Nomogram for PMI Determination (Fig. 7.8) (Henssge and Madea 2004)
			7.4.3.1 Factors Affecting the Body´s Cooling Rate
		7.4.4 Rigidity (Rigor Mortis)
			7.4.4.1 Physiological Mechanism
			7.4.4.2 Order of Apparition (Table 7.1)
			7.4.4.3 Resolution (Secondary Flaccidity)
			7.4.4.4 Conditions That Influence Rigor Mortis Onset and Duration
			7.4.4.5 Conditions Simulating Rigor Mortis
			7.4.4.6 Medico-Legal Importance
		7.4.5 Supravital Reactions
			7.4.5.1 Mechanical Excitability of Skeletal Muscle Postmortem
			7.4.5.2 Electrical Excitability of Skeletal Muscle Postmortem
			7.4.5.3 Pharmacological Excitability of the Iris Musculature
		7.4.6 Lividity
			7.4.6.1 Site of Appearance
			7.4.6.2 Time of Appearance
			7.4.6.3 Mechanism
			7.4.6.4 Medico-Legal Importance
		7.4.7 Electrolyte Concentration in Vitreous Humor, Blood, and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
			7.4.7.1 Influencing Factors
			7.4.7.2 CSF
	7.5 Late Postmortem Changes
		7.5.1 Decomposition
			7.5.1.1 Autolysis
			7.5.1.2 Putrefaction
			7.5.1.3 Variants of Putrefaction
		7.5.2 Adipocere or Saponification
			7.5.2.1 History
			7.5.2.2 Formation
			7.5.2.3 Medico-Legal Importance
		7.5.3 Mummification
			7.5.3.1 How Does Mummification Occur?
			7.5.3.2 Conditions Simulating Mummification
			7.5.3.3 Medico-Legal Importance
		7.5.4 Skeletonization
		7.5.5 Forensic Entomology
			7.5.5.1 Ecological Roles of Insects in Decomposition
			7.5.5.2 Stages of Insect-Aided Decomposition (Ramayah 2014; Rodriguez III 1982)
			7.5.5.3 History
			7.5.5.4 Influencing Factors
			7.5.5.5 Medico-Legal Importance
	7.6 Other Methods Used in the Calculation of PMI
		7.6.1 Radio-Carbon Dating
		7.6.2 Decomposition-1H Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopies
		7.6.3 DNA Degradation
		7.6.4 Strontium90
		7.6.5 Gastric Emptying
		7.6.6 Activity of Enzymes
			7.6.6.1 Transaminases/Aminotransferases
			7.6.6.2 Acid Phosphatase-Within 48 h, Levels Increase 20 Times
			7.6.6.3 Alkaline Phosphatase: Increase with PMI
			7.6.6.4 Amylase-After 2 Days the Levels Are 3-4 Times the Normal Levels of Antemortem
			7.6.6.5 Lactate Dehydrogenase
			7.6.6.6 Esterase Including Cholinesterase
			7.6.6.7 Phosphoglutamutase
			7.6.6.8 Creatine Kinase
		7.6.7 The Uterus Cycles
		7.6.8 Brain RNA
		7.6.9 Protein Degradation
	7.7 Conclusion
	References
8: Introduction to Fingerprints
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Fundamental Principles of Fingerprints
	8.3 Importance of Fingerprints
	8.4 History of Fingerprints
	8.5 Levels of Fingerprint Identification
	8.6 Types of Patterns of Fingerprints
		8.6.1 Arch Pattern
		8.6.2 Loop Pattern
		8.6.3 Whorl Pattern
		8.6.4 Composite Pattern
	8.7 Ridge Tracing and Ridge Counting
	8.8 Recording of Fingerprints
	8.9 Classification of Fingerprints
		8.9.1 Primary Classification System
		8.9.2 Secondary Classification
		8.9.3 Sub-secondary Classification
	8.10 Other Classifications
		8.10.1 Single-Digit Classification System
		8.10.2 Automated Fingerprint System
		8.10.3 Classification of Scattered Patterns: Amputations-Missing at Birth
		8.10.4 Classification of Bandaged or Imprinted Fingers
	8.11 Collection of Fingerprints
		8.11.1 Composition of Fingerprint Residues
	8.12 Methods of Visualization/Development
		8.12.1 Powder Dusting Method
		8.12.2 Chemical Method
		8.12.3 Fuming Method
		8.12.4 Optical Method
		8.12.5 Instrumental Method
	8.13 Conclusion
	References
9: Palmprints: An Introduction
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 The Emphasis on Palmprints over Fingerprints
	9.3 Regions of Palm
	9.4 Classification of Palmprints
		9.4.1 Western Australian Palmprint Classification
		9.4.2 Liverpool Palmprint Classification System
		9.4.3 The Brogger Moller Palmprint Classification System
		9.4.4 Palmprint Classification Using Principal Lines
		9.4.5 Automated Palmprint Classification Systems
	9.5 Conclusion
	References
10: Forensic Podiatry: An Introduction
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Foot Anatomy
	10.3 Footprints as Evidence at the Crime Scene
	10.4 Types of Footprints
	10.5 Classifications of Footprints
		10.5.1 The FBI´s Footprint Classification System
		10.5.2 Chatterjee Footprint Classification System
		10.5.3 Classification of Footprints by Robert B. Montgomery
	10.6 Documentation of Footprints
	10.7 Collection Methods of Footprints
		10.7.1 Collection Methods of the Footprint from the Crime Scene
		10.7.2 Collection of the Footprints from the Subject
	10.8 Footprint Analysis
	10.9 Futuristic Approach: Recovery of DNA from Footprints
	10.10 Case Study
	10.11 Conclusion
	References
11: Ear Prints in Forensic Science: An Introduction
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Application of Ear/Ear Print Examination in Forensic Science
	11.3 Ear Morphology
	11.4 Classification of Ear Based on the Shape of the Auricle
	11.5 Iannarelli System of Ear Classification
	11.6 Polish Otoscopic Identification System
	11.7 Development and Collection of Latent Ear Prints from Crime Scene
	11.8 Forensic Significance of Ear Print
	11.9 Conclusion
	References
12: An Introduction to Questioned Documents
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Principles of Handwriting and Signature
	12.3 Characteristics
		12.3.1 Class Characteristics
		12.3.2 Individual Characteristics
	12.4 Factors Affecting the Handwriting
	12.5 Examination of Handwriting
		12.5.1 Specimen or Requested Writing
		12.5.2 Natural Writing/Admitted Writings/Collected Writings
	12.6 Collection and Packaging of the Documents
	12.7 Forgery: Types and Detection
		12.7.1 Detection of Forgery
	12.8 Alterations
	12.9 Examination of Typewritten Document
	12.10 Examination of Photocopied Documents
	12.11 Examination of Secret Writing
	12.12 Document Dating
	12.13 Conclusion
	References
13: Introduction to Forensic Psychology
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Brief Contributions in the Field
	13.3 Role of Forensic Psychologist
	13.4 Interview Techniques
		13.4.1 Interview Room
			13.4.1.1 Characteristics of Interviewer
			13.4.1.2 Non-Verbal Characteristics
		13.4.2 Morgan Interview Theme Technique (MITT)
		13.4.3 FAINT
		13.4.4 Content-Based Statement Analysis (CBSA)
		13.4.5 Systematic Content Analysis (SCAN) Technique
	13.5 Polygraph
		13.5.1 The Polygraph Instrument
		13.5.2 Procedure
	13.6 Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature (BEOS) Profiling Test
		13.6.1 Formulation of Scenario and Probes
	13.7 Narco Analysis
		13.7.1 Procedure for Narco Analysis Test
	13.8 Suspect Detection System
		13.8.1 The Procedure for the SDS Test
	13.9 Layered Voice Analysis (LVA)
	13.10 Conclusion
	References
14: Essentials of Forensic Physics
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Glass
		14.2.1 Introduction
		14.2.2 Composition and Variety of Glass
		14.2.3 Considering Glass as Evidence
		14.2.4 Forensic Examination of Glass Evidence
			14.2.4.1 Examination of Physical Properties
				14.2.4.1.1 Refractive Index Assessment
				14.2.4.1.2 Density Assessment
			14.2.4.2 Interpretation of Glass Fracture
			14.2.4.3 Elemental Analysis of the Glass
	14.3 Soil
		14.3.1 Introduction and Morphology
		14.3.2 Considering Soil as Trace Evidence
		14.3.3 Forensic Analysis of Soil
			14.3.3.1 Screening and Assessing Physical Properties
			14.3.3.2 Assessment of Chemical Properties
	14.4 Paint
		14.4.1 Introduction: Nature, Composition, and Manufacturing
		14.4.2 Considering Paint as Evidence
		14.4.3 Forensic Examination of Paint
			14.4.3.1 Microscopic Examination
			14.4.3.2 Chemical Tests and Instrumental Methods
	14.5 Fiber and Fabric
		14.5.1 Introduction and Classification
			14.5.1.1 Rope and Cordages
		14.5.2 Considering Fiber and Textile as Evidence
		14.5.3 Forensic Examination
			14.5.3.1 Assessment of Physical Properties
			14.5.3.2 Assessment of Chemical Properties
	14.6 Tool Marks
		14.6.1 Introduction and Types of Tool Marks
		14.6.2 Considering Tool Marks as Evidence
		14.6.3 Forensic Examination of Tool Marks
	14.7 Serial Number
		14.7.1 Introduction
		14.7.2 Restoration
			14.7.2.1 Chemical Etchcing
			14.7.2.2 Electrochemical Method
			14.7.2.3 Magnetic Particle Method
	14.8 Standards and Statistics
		14.8.1 Standards
		14.8.2 Statistics
	14.9 Conclusion
	References
15: Essentials of Forensic Ballistics
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Nature and Scope of Forensic Ballistics
	15.3 Firearm
		15.3.1 Parts of Firearm
			15.3.1.1 Barrel
			15.3.1.2 Action
			15.3.1.3 Butt Stock or Grip
		15.3.2 Classification of Firearms
			15.3.2.1 On the Basis of Size
				15.3.2.1.1 Handguns
					15.3.2.1.1.1 Pistols
					15.3.2.1.1.2 Revolver
				15.3.2.1.2 Long Guns or Shoulder Arms
					15.3.2.1.2.1 Shotguns
					15.3.2.1.2.2 Choke
					15.3.2.1.2.3 Rifles
			15.3.2.2 On the Basis of Loading
				15.3.2.2.1 Muzzle Loading Firearms
				15.3.2.2.2 Breech Loading Firearms
		15.3.3 Country Made Firearms or Improvised Firearms
			15.3.3.1 Paradox Gun
		15.3.4 Air-Guns and Air-Rifles
		15.3.5 Action Mechanism of Modern Firearms
			15.3.5.1 Hammer Action
			15.3.5.2 Hammerless Action
			15.3.5.3 Lever Action
			15.3.5.4 Pump Action
			15.3.5.5 Revolving Action
			15.3.5.6 Bolt Action
			15.3.5.7 Semi-Automatic Action
			15.3.5.8 Automatic Action
	15.4 Muzzle Velocity and Various Ranges of Firearms
	15.5 Types of Ammunition
		15.5.1 Primer, Propellants and Projectiles
			15.5.1.1 Primers
			15.5.1.2 Propellants
				15.5.1.2.1 Black Gun Powder
				15.5.1.2.2 Smokeless Powder
				15.5.1.2.3 Semi-Smokeless Powder
		15.5.2 Projectiles
			15.5.2.1 Tandem Bullets or Piggyback Bullets
			15.5.2.2 Stray Bullet or Falling Bullets
			15.5.2.3 Ricochet Bullets
			15.5.2.4 Hang Fire
		15.5.3 Wads
	15.6 Firearm Identification: Various Tool Marks on Fired Cartridge Case and Bullet
		15.6.1 Marks on Fired Cartridge Casing
			15.6.1.1 Firing Pin Marks
			15.6.1.2 Breech Face Marks
			15.6.1.3 Chamber Marks
			15.6.1.4 Ejector Marks
			15.6.1.5 Extractor Marks
			15.6.1.6 Ejection Port Marks
			15.6.1.7 Drag Marks
		15.6.2 Marks on Fired Projectile/Bullet
		15.6.3 Comparative Matching of Cartridges and Bullets: Firearm Identification
			15.6.3.1 Automated Firearms Identification
	15.7 Various Close Range Phenomenon and Range of Fire Estimation
		15.7.1 Dispersion of Pellets/Shots at the Target
	15.8 Gunshot Residue Examination
	15.9 Gunshot Entry Vs. Exit Wounds and Gunshot Homicidal Vs. Suicidal Cases
	15.10 Conclusion
	References
16: Road Accident Investigation
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Classification of Road Accidents
	16.3 Why Investigation Need
	16.4 The Investigator: Role and Responsibilities
	16.5 The Investigation Planning
	16.6 Principle of Investigation Process
		16.6.1 Background Understanding and Management
		16.6.2 Establishing Investigation Parameters
		16.6.3 Accident Sources
		16.6.4 The Investigation Pyramid
	16.7 Tools and Techniques for Investigation
	16.8 Accident Scene Investigation
		16.8.1 Subjective Evidence
		16.8.2 Objective Evidence
			16.8.2.1 Accident Scene and Surrounding
			16.8.2.2 Tire Marks
				16.8.2.2.1 Acceleration Marks
				16.8.2.2.2 Skid Marks
				16.8.2.2.3 Yaw Marks
				16.8.2.2.4 Location of Debris
			16.8.2.3 Vehicle: Exterior and Interior Surface
	16.9 Accident Reconstruction
	16.10 Advancement in Accidents Reconstruction Methods
		Case Study
	16.11 Conclusions
	References
17: Forensic Biology
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Hair
		17.2.1 Structure of Hair Follicle
			17.2.1.1 Cuticle
			17.2.1.2 Cortex
			17.2.1.3 Medulla
		17.2.2 Morphology of Hairs
		17.2.3 Human Hairs vs. Non-human Hairs
	17.3 Nails
	17.4 Teeth
		17.4.1 Age Estimation
			17.4.1.1 Visual Examination
			17.4.1.2 Histological Examination
			17.4.1.3 Morphological Examination
			17.4.1.4 Radiological Examination
			17.4.1.5 Bio-chemical Examination
		17.4.2 Gender Determination
			17.4.2.1 Morphological Examination
				17.4.2.1.1 Root Length and Crown Diameter
				17.4.2.1.2 Canine Dimorphism
			17.4.2.2 Molecular Examination
				17.4.2.2.1 Barr Bodies
				17.4.2.2.2 F-Bodies
				17.4.2.2.3 Sex Determining Regions of Y (SRY) Gene
				17.4.2.2.4 Amelogenin Gene
	17.5 Botanical Evidences and Their Forensic Examinations
		17.5.1 Forensic Examination of Woods
			17.5.1.1 Color
			17.5.1.2 Florescence
			17.5.1.3 Odor
			17.5.1.4 Hardness
			17.5.1.5 Pore Size and Pore Arrangements
				17.5.1.5.1 Solitary Pores
				17.5.1.5.2 Pore Multiples
				17.5.1.5.3 Pore Chains
				17.5.1.5.4 Nested Pores
				17.5.1.5.5 Wavy Band
			17.5.1.6 Parenchyma
			17.5.1.7 Wood Rays
			17.5.1.8 Tyloses
			17.5.1.9 Dendrochronology
		17.5.2 Leaves
			17.5.2.1 Structure of a Leaf
			17.5.2.2 Vein Counts and Venation
			17.5.2.3 Stomatal Index
			17.5.2.4 Palisade Ratio
			17.5.2.5 Types of Trichomes
		17.5.3 Pollen Grains
	17.6 Diatoms
	17.7 Wildlife Forensics
		17.7.1 Morphological Analysis
		17.7.2 Footprints Analysis
		17.7.3 Osteology
		17.7.4 Microscopic Examination
		17.7.5 Molecular Examination
		17.7.6 Isotopic Examination
	17.8 Forensic Entomology
		17.8.1 Necrophagous Insects
		17.8.2 Life Cycle of Blowflies
	17.9 Forensic Mycology
		17.9.1 Structure of a Fungus
		17.9.2 Life Cycles of Fungi
		17.9.3 Roles of Fungi in Forensic Sciences
	17.10 Conclusion
	References
18: Forensic Serology
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Blood
		18.2.1 Physical Examination
		18.2.2 Presumptive Examinations
			18.2.2.1 Colorimetric Tests
				18.2.2.1.1 Guaiacum Test
				18.2.2.1.2 Benzidine Reaction
				18.2.2.1.3 Leucomalachite Green Reaction
				18.2.2.1.4 Phenolphthalein Reaction
				18.2.2.1.5 Aloin Test
			18.2.2.2 Chemiluminescence and Fluorescence Tests
				18.2.2.2.1 Luminol Test
				18.2.2.2.2 Fluorescin Reaction
		18.2.3 Confirmatory Examinations
			18.2.3.1 Micro-Crystal Test
				18.2.3.1.1 Teichmann Test
				18.2.3.1.2 Takayama Test
			18.2.3.2 Immunological Tests
				18.2.3.2.1 Tests Based on Haemoglobin Proteins
				18.2.3.2.2 Tests Based on Glycophorin-A Protein
	18.3 Menstrual Blood
		18.3.1 Microscopic Examination
			18.3.1.1 Lactate Dehydrogenase Immunoassay
			18.3.1.2 D-dimer Identification
	18.4 Semen
		18.4.1 Visual Examination
			18.4.1.1 Color
			18.4.1.2 Texture
			18.4.1.3 Smell
			18.4.1.4 Appearance
			18.4.1.5 Peel
		18.4.2 Examination Under UV Rays
		18.4.3 Microscopic Examination
		18.4.4 Phosphatase Method
		18.4.5 Prostate-Specific Antigen
		18.4.6 Biological Tests
		18.4.7 Chemical Tests
			18.4.7.1 Barberio´s Test
			18.4.7.2 Florence Test
	18.5 Vaginal Fluid
		18.5.1 Lugol´s Iodine Test
		18.5.2 Vaginal Acid Phosphatase
	18.6 Saliva
		18.6.1 Characteristics of Saliva
		18.6.2 Visual Examination
		18.6.3 Preliminary Test
			18.6.3.1 Iodine Assay
			18.6.3.2 Phadebas Test
			18.6.3.3 Radial Diffusion Assay
		18.6.4 Confirmatory Test
			18.6.4.1 Immuno-Chromatographic Assays
			18.6.4.2 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
	18.7 Urine
		18.7.1 Visual Examination
		18.7.2 Odor Test
		18.7.3 Presumptive Test
			18.7.3.1 Creatinine Test
		18.7.4 Confirmatory Test
			18.7.4.1 Urea Nitrate Crystal Test
			18.7.4.2 Detection of Indican
	18.8 Sweat
	18.9 Tears
	18.10 Bloodstain Pattern Analysis
		18.10.1 Categories of Bloodstains on the Basis of Velocity
			18.10.1.1 Low-Velocity Blood Spatter
			18.10.1.2 Medium-Velocity Blood Spatter
			18.10.1.3 High-Velocity Blood Spatter
		18.10.2 Types of Bloodstain Patterns
			18.10.2.1 Passive Bloodstain Patterns
				18.10.2.1.1 Clots
				18.10.2.1.2 Drips
				18.10.2.1.3 Pools
				18.10.2.1.4 Flows
				18.10.2.1.5 Spatter
				18.10.2.1.6 Splash
			18.10.2.2 Transfer Bloodstain Patterns
				18.10.2.2.1 Swipe
				18.10.2.2.2 Wipe
			18.10.2.3 Projected Bloodstain Patterns
				18.10.2.3.1 Arterial Gushing and Spurts
				18.10.2.3.2 Misting
				18.10.2.3.3 Cast Off
				18.10.2.3.4 Void Pattern
		18.10.3 Interpretation of Bloodstain Patterns
	18.11 Blood Grouping
		18.11.1 ABO System
		18.11.2 Rhesus System
		18.11.3 MNS Antigen System
		18.11.4 Lutheran System
		18.11.5 Kell System
		18.11.6 Duffy System
		18.11.7 Kidd System
	18.12 Species Identification
		18.12.1 Precipitin Tube Method
		18.12.2 Double Diffusion Methods
		18.12.3 Crossed-Over Electrophoresis
	18.13 Polymorphic Enzyme Typing
		18.13.1 Matrices Supporting Protein Electrophoresis
		18.13.2 Separation by Molecular Weight
		18.13.3 Separation by Isoelectric Point
		18.13.4 Erythrocyte Protein Polymorphisms
		18.13.5 Serum Protein Polymorphisms
	18.14 Conclusion
	References
19: DNA and Its Significance in Forensic Science
	19.1 DNA: The Genetic Molecule
	19.2 Commencement of Genetic Identification
	19.3 Progression of Genetic Markers for Forensic Identification
		19.3.1 Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTRs)
		19.3.2 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNPs)
		19.3.3 Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)
			19.3.3.1 Autosomal Short Tandem Repeats (Autosomal STRs)
			19.3.3.2 Y-Short Tandem Repeats (Y-STR)
			19.3.3.3 X-Short Tandem Repeats (X-STRs)
	19.4 STR Multiplex Kit
	19.5 Mitochondrial DNA (Mt-DNA) Analysis
	19.6 Present Context of Routine DNA Analysis
		19.6.1 Handling of Biological Evidence for DNA Analysis
		19.6.2 Laboratory Analysis of DNA
			19.6.2.1 DNA Extraction
				19.6.2.1.1 Phenol-Chloroform Isoamyl Extraction Method
				19.6.2.1.2 Silica-Based Extraction Method
				19.6.2.1.3 Salting Out Method for DNA Extraction
				19.6.2.1.4 Chelex Extraction Method
				19.6.2.1.5 Column-Based Isolation of DNA
				19.6.2.1.6 Magnetic Bead-Based Isolation
			19.6.2.2 Quantitation
			19.6.2.3 Amplification
			19.6.2.4 Genotyping
		19.6.3 Recent Advancements in Forensic DNA
			19.6.3.1 Development of Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) Based STR Analysis
			19.6.3.2 Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)
				19.6.3.2.1 Sequencing by Synthesis
				19.6.3.2.2 Pyrosequencing
				19.6.3.2.3 Sequencing by Cyclic Reversible Terminator
				19.6.3.2.4 Semiconductor Sequencing
				19.6.3.2.5 Sequencing by Hybridization and Ligation
	19.7 Case Studies
		19.7.1 Rajiv Gandhi Assassination Case
		19.7.2 Naina Sahani (Tandoor Murder Case)
		19.7.3 Nirbhaya Case
	19.8 Conclusion
	References
20: Introduction to Forensic Medicine and Pathology
	20.1 Autopsy
	20.2 Identification
	20.3 Pathology of Wounds
	20.4 Asphyxia
		20.4.1 Hanging
		20.4.2 Strangulation
		20.4.3 Smothering
		20.4.4 Drowning
		20.4.5 Traumatic Asphyxia
	20.5 Sexual Offences
		20.5.1 Opinion
	20.6 Toxicology
	20.7 Conclusion
	References
21: Forensic Anthropology
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Forensic Anthropology
		21.2.1 Sub-Fields of Forensic Anthropology
			21.2.1.1 Forensic Osteology
			21.2.1.2 Forensic Odontology
			21.2.1.3 Forensic Taphonomy
			21.2.1.4 Forensic Archaeology
	21.3 Need of Forensic Anthropologist
	21.4 Historical Background: Development of the Forensic Anthropology as Discipline (World and India)
	21.5 What a Forensic Anthropologist Do
		21.5.1 The Stages/Scenario of Forensic Human Identification Process Conducted by a Physical Anthropologist: A Brief View
			21.5.1.1 Initial Assessment of Skeletons
				21.5.1.1.1 Is the Evidence, Skeletal Material or Not?
				21.5.1.1.2 Is the Skeletal Evidence Belongs to Human Skeleton or Not?
				21.5.1.1.3 Is the Skeletal Evidence Belongs to a Single or More Persons?
	21.6 Determination of Demographic Characteristics
		21.6.1 Determination of Ancestry
			21.6.1.1 Skeletal Indicators
			21.6.1.2 Cultural Indicators
			21.6.1.3 Molecular Indicators
			21.6.1.4 Somatoscopic Indicators
		21.6.2 Determination of Sex
		21.6.3 Determination of Age/Age at Death
			21.6.3.1 Determination of Age from Dentition
			21.6.3.2 Determination of Age from Ossification of Bones
		21.6.4 Determination of Age from Skull Suture Closure
		21.6.5 Determination of Age Based on Changes in Pubic Symphyseal Surface
		21.6.6 Determination of Age Based on Changes in Morphology of Mendible
		21.6.7 Determination of Stature from Skeletal Remains
	21.7 Identity Markers Related to Individual and Its Life History
	21.8 Trauma Analysis
	21.9 Craniofacial Reconstruction
	21.10 Identifying Living Individuals
	21.11 Determining the Age of Living Individuals (Imputability, Migration Issues and Pedo-Pornography)
	21.12 Positive or Confirmed Identity and Exclusion
		21.12.1 Human Right Issues and Forensic Anthropologist
		21.12.2 Case Studies/Famous Case Histories
		21.12.3 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects
	References
22: Forensic Chemistry
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Fire and Arson
		22.2.1 Chemistry of Fire
		22.2.2 Ignitable Liquids
		22.2.3 Forensic Investigation of Fire Scene
		22.2.4 Sample Collection and Packaging
		22.2.5 Extraction of ILR from Fire Debris
		22.2.6 Analysis of Extracted ILR
	22.3 Explosion
		22.3.1 Classification of Explosives
			22.3.1.1 Low Explosives
				22.3.1.1.1 Propellant
				22.3.1.1.2 Pyrotechnics
			22.3.1.2 High Explosives
				22.3.1.2.1 Primary Explosives
				22.3.1.2.2 Secondary Explosives
		22.3.2 Investigation of the Explosion Scene
		22.3.3 Laboratory Analysis of Post-blast Residue
			22.3.3.1 Preliminary Tests
			22.3.3.2 Confirmatory Tests/Techniques
	22.4 Drugs as Physical Evidence
		22.4.1 Classification of Drugs
			22.4.1.1 Form and Origin
			22.4.1.2 Pharmacological Classification
		22.4.2 Commonly Encountered Drugs in Forensic Laboratories
			22.4.2.1 Opium
			22.4.2.2 Marijuana
			22.4.2.3 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
			22.4.2.4 Barbiturates
			22.4.2.5 Amphetamines
			22.4.2.6 Cocaine
			22.4.2.7 Club Drugs
		22.4.3 Analysis of Drugs in Forensic Laboratories
	22.5 Alcohol as Physical Evidence
		22.5.1 Chemistry of Alcohols
		22.5.2 Alcoholic Beverages
		22.5.3 Fate of Alcohol in the Body
		22.5.4 Field Test (Breath Analyzer)
		22.5.5 Laboratory Analysis
			22.5.5.1 Chemical Analysis
				22.5.5.1.1 Preliminary Tests (Functional Group Test)
				22.5.5.1.2 Test for Specific Alcohols
			22.5.5.2 Determination of Alcohol Concentration
			22.5.5.3 Instrumental Analysis
		22.5.6 Alcoholic Content and Its Determination in Alcoholic Beverage
	References
23: Forensic Toxicology: An Overview
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 A Brief Historical Perspective
	23.3 Working Mechanism and the Subsequent Effect of Xenobiotics/Toxicants
	23.4 Forensic Toxicology
	23.5 Poisons
	23.6 Classification of Poison
		23.6.1 Based on Origin
		23.6.2 Based on the Mode of Action
			23.6.2.1 Corrosive Poisons
			23.6.2.2 Irritant Poisons
			23.6.2.3 Systemic Poisons
		23.6.3 Based on Medico-Legal Aspects
		23.6.4 Based on Nature (Form) of Poison
		23.6.5 Based on Site of Action
	23.7 Antidote (Treatment of Poison)
		23.7.1 Classification of Antidote
			23.7.1.1 Physical or Mechanical Antidote
			23.7.1.2 Chemical Antidote
			23.7.1.3 Physiological Antidote
			23.7.1.4 Universal Antidote
	23.8 Factors Affecting the Action of the Poison
		23.8.1 Factors Pertaining to Poison
		23.8.2 Factors Pertaining to the Host
	23.9 Illicit Drugs
		23.9.1 Classification of the Controlled/Illicit Drugs
		23.9.2 Drugs of Abuse: Uses and Risk (Table 23.2)
		23.9.3 Detection/Examination of the Controlled/Illicit Drugs
	23.10 Alcohol
		23.10.1 Kinetics of Alcohol
		23.10.2 Stages of Alcohol Intoxication
		23.10.3 Breath Analyzer Test
	23.11 Collection and Preservation of Poison, Illicit Drugs and Alcohol
		23.11.1 Collection of Toxicological Evidences
			23.11.1.1 Blood
			23.11.1.2 Urine
			23.11.1.3 Liver
			23.11.1.4 Vitreous Humour
			23.11.1.5 Stomach Contents
			23.11.1.6 Bone and Bone Marrow
			23.11.1.7 Hair and Nails
			23.11.1.8 Bile
			23.11.1.9 Brain
	23.12 Detection of Some Frequently Used Poisons, Illicit Drugs and Alcohol
		23.12.1 Extraction of Volatile Poison
		23.12.2 Isolation of Toxic Anions (Dialysis Method)
		23.12.3 Isolation of Toxic Cations (Metallic Poison)
		23.12.4 Extraction of Non-volatile Organic Poison
			23.12.4.1 Protein Precipitation
		23.12.5 Extraction of Poison from Biological Matrices
		23.12.6 Extraction of Miscellaneous Poison
	23.13 Analytical Techniques
		23.13.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)
		23.13.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
		23.13.3 Gas Chromatography (GC)
		23.13.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
		23.13.5 Immunoassays
		23.13.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)
		23.13.7 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
		23.13.8 Voltammetry/Polarography
		23.13.9 Thermal or Chemical Sputtering Neutral Desorption
		23.13.10 Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)
		23.13.11 Induced Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (ICP)
		23.13.12 Mass Spectroscopy (MS)
		23.13.13 Bimolecular Interaction Analysis-Mass Spectrometry (BIA-MS)
		23.13.14 Cyclic Voltammetry and Pulsed Electrochemical Detectors (PED)
	23.14 Conclusion
	References
24: Drugs of Abuse: Trends and Advanced Analytical Methods
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Drug Abuse Is Not a Victimless Crime
	24.3 Drugs of Abuse: The Analytes
	24.4 Bio-matrices for Drug Abuse Analysis
	24.5 Analytical Methods for Analysis of DOA in Biological Samples
		24.5.1 Types of Analysis
	24.6 Analytical Methods for DOA Testing
		24.6.1 Immunoassays
		24.6.2 Hyphenated Chromatographic Techniques
	24.7 DOA in Alternative Matrices
		24.7.1 Hair
		24.7.2 Oral Fluids
		24.7.3 Meconium
		24.7.4 Postmortem Alternative Specimens
	24.8 Conclusion
	References
25: Cyber and Digital Forensic
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Digital Crimes
	25.3 Cybercrime
	25.4 Digital Evidence and Digital Forensics
	25.5 Collection and Packaging of Digital Evidences
	25.6 Forensic Investigation in Digital Crimes
		25.6.1 Call Detail Record (CDR) and Internet Protocol Detailed Record (IPDR) Analysis
		25.6.2 Cell Tower Analysis
		25.6.3 Voice Over IP-Related Analysis
		25.6.4 Email Analysis
	25.7 Forensic Analysis of Mobile Phone
		25.7.1 Manual Extraction
		25.7.2 Logical Extraction
		25.7.3 File System Extraction
		25.7.4 Physical Extraction
		25.7.5 Advanced Data Extraction Tools
	25.8 Computer Forensic Examination
		25.8.1 Acquisition
		25.8.2 Acquisition of a Local Drive
		25.8.3 Acquisition of Non-local Drive
	25.9 DVR and NVR Forensic
	25.10 Software and Tools for Digital Forensic
		25.10.1 Mobile Phone Forensic Toolkits
		25.10.2 Computer Forensics Software
		25.10.3 DVR Forensic Software
		25.10.4 Imaging Devices and Write Blockers Tools
	25.11 Encryption and Decryption
	25.12 Public and Private Key
	25.13 Network Forensic
	25.14 Ethical Hacking
	25.15 Certification
		25.15.1 EC-Council
		25.15.2 IACIS
		25.15.3 ISFCE
		25.15.4 SANS
		25.15.5 HTCI
		25.15.6 LEVA
		25.15.7 Vendor Certification
			25.15.7.1 Guidance Software
			25.15.7.2 AccessData
	25.16 Conclusion
	References
		Useful Links
26: An Introduction to Biometric Authentication Systems
	26.1 Introduction
		26.1.1 Biometric Recognition System
		26.1.2 Biometrics and Forensic Science
	26.2 Historical Background
		26.2.1 The Inception of Biometric Identification
		26.2.2 The Transition from Manual to Automated Systems
	26.3 Biometric Identification Process
		26.3.1 Data Acquisition
		26.3.2 Data Preprocessing
		26.3.3 Feature Extraction
		26.3.4 Encoding
		26.3.5 Verification and Identification
	26.4 Biometric Systems
		26.4.1 Physiological Biometric Traits
			26.4.1.1 Fingerprint
				26.4.1.1.1 Background
				26.4.1.1.2 Physiology
				26.4.1.1.3 Recognition Process
			26.4.1.2 Palmprint
				26.4.1.2.1 Background
				26.4.1.2.2 Physiology
				26.4.1.2.3 Recognition Process
			26.4.1.3 Facial Recognition
				26.4.1.3.1 Background
				26.4.1.3.2 Physiology
				26.4.1.3.3 Recognition System
			26.4.1.4 Retina
				26.4.1.4.1 Background
				26.4.1.4.2 Physiology
				26.4.1.4.3 Recognition System
			26.4.1.5 Iris
				26.4.1.5.1 Background
				26.4.1.5.2 Physiology
				26.4.1.5.3 Recognition Process
			26.4.1.6 Vein Pattern Recognition
				26.4.1.6.1 Background
				26.4.1.6.2 Physiology
				26.4.1.6.3 Recognition Process
			26.4.1.7 Ear Biometrics
				26.4.1.7.1 Background
				26.4.1.7.2 Physiology
				26.4.1.7.3 Recognition System
			26.4.1.8 Hand Geometry
				26.4.1.8.1 Background
				26.4.1.8.2 Physiology
				26.4.1.8.3 Recognition System
		26.4.2 Behavioral Biometric Traits
			26.4.2.1 Handwriting and Signature
				26.4.2.1.1 Background
				26.4.2.1.2 Behavioral Features
				26.4.2.1.3 Recognition System
			26.4.2.2 Keystroke Pattern
				26.4.2.2.1 Background
				26.4.2.2.2 Behavioral Features
				26.4.2.2.3 Recognition System
			26.4.2.3 Voice Authentication
				26.4.2.3.1 Background
				26.4.2.3.2 Behavioral and Physiological Features
				26.4.2.3.3 Recognition System
			26.4.2.4 Gait Pattern
				26.4.2.4.1 Background
				26.4.2.4.2 Behavioral Features
				26.4.2.4.3 Recognition System
	26.5 Challenges
	26.6 Conclusion
	References