Textbook of Elementary Physics Volume 1. Mechanics. Heat. Molecular Physics

COVER PAGE......Page 1
TITLE PAGE......Page 2
CONTENTS......Page 3
LIST OF TABLES......Page 11
PREFACE......Page 12
INTRODUCTION......Page 13
1.1. Motion  of  Bodies......Page 17
1.2. Kinematics. Relativity of Motion and Rest......Page 19
1.3. Trajectory of Motion......Page 20
1.4. Translational and Rotational Motion of a Body......Page 21
1.5. Motion of a Point......Page 22
1.6. Description of Motion of a Point......Page 23
1.7. Measurement of Length......Page 26
1.8. Measurement of Time Intervals......Page 28
1.9. Uniform Motion and Its Velocity......Page 30
1.11. Units of Velocity......Page 32
1.12. Distance-Time Charts......Page 34
1.14. Non-Uniform Motion. Mean Velocity......Page 38
1.15. Instantaneous Velocity......Page 40
1.16. Acceleration......Page 42
1.18. Negative Acceleration......Page 44
1.19. Velocity Charts for Uniformly Accelerated Motion......Page 45
1.20. Velocity Charts for Any Non-Uniform Motion......Page 46
1.22. Distance Travelled in Uniformly Accelerated Motion......Page 48
1.23. Vectors......Page 50
1.24. Resolving a Vector into Components......Page 53
1.26. Velocity Vector of Curvilinear Motion......Page 55
1.27. Acceleration in Curvilinear Motion......Page 56
1.28. Motion with Respect to Different Reference Systems......Page 58
1.29. Kinematics of Cosmic Motions......Page 60
2.2. The Law of Inertia......Page 63
2.3. Inertial Reference Systems......Page 65
2.4. Galileo's Principle of Relativity......Page 66
2.5. Forces......Page 67
2.6. Balancing Forces. A Body at Rest and Motion by Inertia......Page 68
2.7. Vector Character of Force. Standard of Force......Page 69
2.8. Dynamometers......Page 71
2.10. Resultant Force......Page 74
2.11. Summation of Force Directed along One Straight Line......Page 75
2.12. Summation of Forces Directed at an Angle to One Another......Page 76
2.13. Relationship between Force and Acceleration......Page 78
2.14. Mass of a Body......Page 80
2.15. Newton's Second Law......Page 81
2.16. Units of Force and Mass......Page 85
2.17. Systems of Units......Page 87
2.18. Newton's Third Law......Page 89
2.19. Examples of Newton's Third Law......Page 92
2.20. Momentum of a Body......Page 93
2.21. System of Bodies. Universal Law of Conservation of Momentum......Page 94
2.22. Application of the Law of Conservation of Momentum......Page 96
2.23. Weight of a Body......Page 97
2.24. Free Fall of Bodies......Page 100
2.26. Fall of a Body without Initial Velocity and Motion of a Body Thrown Vertically Upward......Page 101
2.27. Mass and Weight......Page 103
2.28. Density and Specific Weight......Page 104
2.29. Origin of Deformations......Page 105
2.30. Deformations in Bodies at Rest Caused only by Forces Appearing upon Contact......Page 106
2.31. Deformations in Bodies at Rest Caused by the Force of Gravity......Page 107
2.32. Deformations of a Body Being Accelerated......Page 109
2.33. Disappearance of Deformations in a Falling Body......Page 110
2.34. Failure of Moving Bodies......Page 112
2.35. Forces of Friction......Page 113
2.36. Rolling Friction......Page 116
2.37. The Role of Friction Forces......Page 117
2.39. Fall of Bodies in Air......Page 118
3.1. General......Page 121
3.2. Ideal Solid Body......Page 122
3.3. Transfer of the Point of Application of a Force Acting on a Solid Body......Page 123
3.4. Equilibrium of a Body under the Action of Three Forces......Page 124
3.5. Resolution of Forces into Components......Page 126
3.6. Projections of Forces. General Condition of Equilibrium......Page 127
3.7. Links. Reactions of Links. A Body Fixed at a Centre of Rotation......Page 129
3.8. Equilibrium of a Body Fixed at a Centre of Rotation......Page 131
3.9. Moment of a Force......Page 132
3.10. Measuring the Moment of a Force......Page 134
3.11. Couple of Forces......Page 135
3.12. Summation of Parallel Forces. Centre of Gravity......Page 136
3.13. Determining the Centre of Gravity of a Body......Page 138
3.14. Different Cases of Equilibrium of a Body under the Action of the Force of Gravity......Page 141
3.15. Conditions of Stable Equilibrium under the Action of the Force of Gravity......Page 143
3.16. Simple Appliances......Page 146
3.17. Wedge and Screw......Page 151
4.1. The 'Golden Rule' of Mechanics......Page 155
4.2. Application of the Golden Rule......Page 156
4.3. Work of a Force......Page 157
4.5. Work of a Force Directed at Any Angle to Motion......Page 158
4.6. Positive and Negative Work......Page 159
4.8. Motion along a Horizontal Surface......Page 160
4.9. Work of the Force of Gravity in Motion along an Inclined Plane......Page 161
4.10. Principle of Conservation of Work......Page 162
4.11. Energy......Page 163
4.12. Potential Energy......Page 164
4.13. Potential Energy of Elastic Deformation......Page 166
4.15. Expression of Kinetic Energy through the Mass and Velocity of a Moving Body......Page 168
4.16. Total Energy of a Body......Page 169
4.17. Law of Conservation of Energy......Page 170
4.18. Forces of Friction and the Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy......Page 173
4.19. Conversion of Mechanical Energy into Internal Energy......Page 174
4.20. Universal Nature of the Law of Conservation of Energy......Page 176
4.21. Power......Page 177
4.22. Calculating the Power of Mechanisms......Page 178
4.23. Power, Speed and Dimensions of a Mechanism......Page 179
4.24. Efficiency of Mechanisms......Page 180
5.2. Newton's Second Law in Curvilinear Motion......Page 183
5.3. Motion of a Body Thrown Horizontally......Page 185
5.4. Motion of a Body Thrown at an Angle to the Horizon......Page 188
5.5. Flight of Bullets and Shells......Page 191
5.6. Angular Velocity......Page 193
5.7. Forces in Uniform Motion along a Circle......Page 194
5.8. Appearance of Force Acting on a Body in Circular Motion......Page 197
5.9. Rupture of Flywheels......Page 198
5.10. Deformation of a Body in Circular Motion. Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces......Page 199
5.11. Roller Coaster......Page 202
5.12. Motion on Curves......Page 204
5.13. Circular Motion of a Suspended Body......Page 206
5.14. Motion of the Planets......Page 207
5.15. The Law of Universal Gravitation......Page 210
5.16. Artificial Satellites of the Earth......Page 214
6.2. Motion with Respect to Different Inertial Reference Systems......Page 220
6.3. Motion with Respect to Inertial and Non-Inertial Reference Systems......Page 221
6.4. Is the Earth an Inertial Reference System?......Page 223
6.5. Translationally Moving Non-Inertial Systems......Page 224
6.6. Forces of Inertia......Page 225
6.7. Equivalence of Forces of Inertia and Gravitation......Page 227
6.8. Weightlessness and Overloads......Page 229
6.9. Rotating Reference Systems......Page 231
6.11. Proof of the Earth's Rotation......Page 234
6.12. The Tides......Page 236
7.2. Forces of Pressure......Page 239
7.3. Measuring the Compressibility of a Liquid......Page 241
7.5. The Forces of Pressure in a Liquid are Transmitted in All Directions......Page 242
7.7. Pressure......Page 243
7.8. Membrane Pressure Gauge......Page 244
7.9. Independence of Pressure on the Direction of the Area......Page 245
7.11. Determining the Forces of Pressure from the Pressure......Page 246
7.13. Pascal's Law......Page 247
7.14. Hydraulic Press......Page 249
7.15. A Liquid under the Action of the Force of Gravity......Page 250
7.16. Communicating Vessels......Page 254
7.17. Liquid-Column Pressure Gauge......Page 256
7.18. Design of Water Supply System. Delivery Pump......Page 257
7.19. Siphon......Page 259
7.20. Force of Pressure on the Bottom of a Vessel......Page 260
7.21. Pressure of Water in a Sea......Page 262
7.22. The Strength of Submarines......Page 265
7.23. Archimedes' Law......Page 266
7.25. Floating of Bodies......Page 271
7.26. Floating of Hollow Bodies......Page 274
7.27. Stability of Ships......Page 275
7.29. Bodies Lying on the Bottom of a Vessel......Page 277
8.1. Mechanical Properties of Gases......Page 279
8.2. The Atmosphere......Page 280
8.3. Atmospheric Pressure......Page 281
8.4. Other Experiments Showing the Existence of Atmospheric Pressure......Page 283
8.5. Rarefaction Pumps......Page 285
8.6. Effect of Atmospheric Pressure on the Level of a Liquid in a Tube......Page 286
8.7. Maximum Height of a Liquid Column......Page 288
8.8. Torricelli's Experiment. Mercury and Aneroid Barometers......Page 290
8.9. Change of Atmospheric Pressure with Altitude......Page 292
8.11. Archimedes' Law for Gases......Page 294
8.12. Balloons and Dirigibles......Page 295
8.13. The Use of Compressed Air in Engineering......Page 298
9.1. Pressure in a Moving Fluid......Page 300
9.2. Flow of Fluids in Pipes. Friction of a Fluid......Page 302
9.3. Bernoulli's Law......Page 304
9.4. Liquid in Non-Inertial Reference Systems......Page 307
9.5. Reaction of a Moving Fluid and Its Use......Page 309
9.6. Propulsion in Water......Page 311
9.8. Reaction Engines......Page 314
9.9. Ballistic Rockets......Page 315
9.11. Resistance of Air and Water......Page 317
9.12. Magnus Effect and Circulation......Page 320
9.13. Lift Force of a Wing and Flight of an Airplane......Page 322
9.14. Turbulence in a Stream of Fluid......Page 325
9.15. Laminar Flow......Page 326
10.1. General......Page 327
10.2. Thermometers......Page 330
10.3. Formula of Linear Expansion......Page 332
10.4. Formula of Volume Expansion......Page 334
10.6. Measuring the Coefficient of Volume Expansion of a Liquid......Page 336
10.7. Features of Expansion of Water......Page 337
11.1. Changes in the State of Bodies......Page 338
11.2. Measuring the Heating of Bodies When Work is Performed......Page 339
11.4. Calorie......Page 341
11.5. Relationship between the Internal Energy of a Body and Its Mass and Substance......Page 342
11.6. Heat Capacity of a Body......Page 343
11.7. Specific Heat......Page 344
11.8. Calorimeter. Measuring Heat Capacity......Page 345
11.9. Principle of Conservation of Energy......Page 347
11.11. Various Processes Accompanied by Heat Transfer......Page 349
12.1. Molecules and Atoms......Page 353
12.2. The Size of Atoms and Molecules......Page 354
12.3. Microcosm......Page 355
12.5. Molecular Motion......Page 356
12.6. Molecular Motion in Gases, Liquids and Solids......Page 357
12.7. Brownian Motion......Page 358
12.8. Molecular Forces......Page 359
13.1. Pressure......Page 362
13.2. How the Pressure of a Gas Depends on Its Temperature......Page 363
13.3. Formula of Charles Law......Page 364
13.5. Change in the Temperature of a Gas upon a Change in Its Volume. Adiabatic and Isothermal Processes......Page 365
13.6. Boyle's Law......Page 367
13.7. Formula of Boyle's Law......Page 369
13.8. Diagram of Boyle's Law......Page 370
13.10. Molecular Interpretation of Boyle's Law......Page 371
13.11. Change in the Volume of a Gas with the Temperature......Page 372
13.12. Gay-Lussac's Law......Page 373
13.13. Diagrams of Charles and Gay-Lussac's Laws......Page 374
13.14. Absolute Temperature......Page 375
13.15. Gas Thermometer......Page 376
13.16. Volume of a Gas and Absolute Temperature......Page 377
13.18. Combined Gas Law......Page 378
13.20. Density of Gases......Page 380
13.21. Avogadro's Law......Page 381
13.22. Gramme-Molecule. Avogadro's Number......Page 382
13.23. Velocities of Gas Molecules......Page 383
13.24. On One Method of Determining the Velocities of Gas Molecules (Stern's Experiment)......Page 386
13.25. Heat Capacity of Gases......Page 388
13.26. Molar Heats......Page 389
13.27. Dulong and Petit's Law......Page 390
14.1. Structure of Liquids......Page 392
14.2. Surface Energy......Page 393
14.3. Surface Tension......Page 396
14.4. Liquid Films......Page 399
14.5. Relationship between Surface Tension and Temperature......Page 400
14.6. Wetting and Non-Wetting Liquids......Page 401
14.7. Arrangement of Molecules at the Surface of Bodies......Page 403
14.8. Significance of Curvature of the Free Surface of a Liquid......Page 404
14.9. Capillary Phenomena......Page 408
14.10. Height of a Liquid in Capillary Tubes......Page 410
14.11. Adsorption......Page 411
14.12. Flotation......Page 413
14.13. Dissolution of Gases......Page 414
14.14. Mutual Dissolution of Liquids......Page 416
14.15. Dissolution of Solids in Liquids......Page 417
15.2. Crystalline Bodies......Page 419
15.3. Amorphous Bodies......Page 422
15.4. Crystal Lattice......Page 423
15.5. Crystallization......Page 425
15.6. Melting and Solidification......Page 426
15.7. Heat of Fusion......Page 428
15.8. Supercooling......Page 429
15.9. Change in the Density of a Substance in Melting......Page 430
15.10. Polymers......Page 431
15.11. Alloys......Page 433
15.13. Cooling Mixtures......Page 435
15.14. Changes in a Solid Body......Page 436
16.2. Elastic and Plastic Deformations......Page 438
16.4. Tension and Compression......Page 439
16.5. Shear......Page 441
16.6. Torsion......Page 443
16.7. Bending......Page 444
16.8. Strength......Page 446
16.10. What Occurs When Bodies are Deformed?......Page 447
16.11. Change of Energy upon Deformation of Bodies......Page 448
17.2. Saturating and Non-Saturating Vapours......Page 449
17.3. What Happens When the Volume of a Mixture of Liquid and Saturating Vapour is Changed?......Page 450
17.4. Dalton's Law for Vapours......Page 452
17.5. Molecular Picture of Evaporation......Page 453
17.6. Relationship between Pressure of Saturating Vapour and Temperature......Page 454
17.7. Boiling......Page 455
17.8. Heat of Vaporization......Page 459
17.9. Cooling upon Evaporation......Page 461
17.10. Change in Internal Energy When a Substance is Converted from the Liquid to the Vapourous State......Page 462
17.11. Evaporation from Curved Surfaces of Liquids......Page 463
17.12. Superheating of Liquids......Page 464
17.13. Supersaturation of Vapours......Page 465
17.14. Saturation of Vapours in Sublimation......Page 466
17.16. Critical Temperature......Page 467
17.17. Liquefaction of Gases in Engineering......Page 470
17.18. Vacuum Engineering......Page 472
17.19. Water Vapour in the Atmosphere......Page 474
18.2. Heat Balance of the Earth......Page 477
18.3. Adiabatic Processes in the Atmosphere......Page 478
18.4. Clouds......Page 479
18.6. The Wind......Page 482
18.7. Weather Forecasting......Page 483
19.2. Steam Power Plant......Page 485
19.3. Steam Boiler Unit......Page 486
19.4. Steam Turbine......Page 488
19.5. Reciprocating (Piston) Steam Engine......Page 489
19.6. Condenser......Page 490
19.8. Efficiency of a Steam Power Plant......Page 491
19.9. Internal-Combustion Petrol Engine......Page 493
19.10. Efficiency of an Internal-Combustion Engine......Page 496
19.11. Diesel Engine......Page 497
19.12. Reaction Engines......Page 498
19.13. Firearms......Page 499
19.14. Transfer of Heat from a Cold Body to a Hot One......Page 500
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES......Page 503
NAME INDEX......Page 506
SUBJECT INDEX......Page 507