Testing of Textile and Fibrous Materials

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
About the Author
Introduction
1 Introduction to Textile Testing
	1.1 The Need for Textile Testing
		1.1.1 Quality Assessment of Raw Material
		1.1.2 Production Monitoring Or Process Control
		1.1.3 Process Development
		1.1.4 Assessment of the Final Product
		1.1.5 Investigation of Faulty Materials
		1.1.6 Product Development and Research
	1.2 The Need for Standardization in Testing
		1.2.1 Factors Causing a Lack of Reproducibility
		1.2.2 Test Standards
		1.2.3 Standard Terms Related to Testing
2 Sampling of Textile Materials
	2.1 Understanding Sampling
		2.1.1 Introduction
		2.1.2 The Aim of Sampling
		2.1.3 Factors Governing the Sampling
		2.1.4 Types of Sampling
			2.1.4.1 Statistical Sampling Or Probability Sampling
			2.1.4.2 Non-Statistical Sampling
		2.1.5 Classification of Sampling for Textile Materials
			2.1.5.1 Numeric Sampling
			2.1.5.2 Biased Sampling
		2.1.6 Terminologies Commonly Used
	2.2 The Sampling of Textile Materials
		2.2.1 Drawing Cotton Fibre Samples From Bale
		2.2.2 Sampling Techniques for Cotton and Wool Fibres From Bale
			2.2.2.1 Zoning Technique for Cotton Fibres
			2.2.2.2 Core Sampling for Wool
		2.2.3 Fibre Sampling for Test Specimen
			2.2.3.1 Numerical Sample
			2.2.3.2 Length Biased Sample
			2.2.3.3 Random Draw Method for Sliver
			2.2.3.4 Cut Square Method for Roving Or Yarn
		2.2.4 Yarn Sampling
			2.2.4.1 Sampling of Yarn Package From a Lot
			2.2.4.2 Sampling of Count of Yarn Removed From Fabric
			2.2.4.3 Sampling of Yarn Twist Measurement
			2.2.4.4 Sampling of Lea Strength of Spun Yarn
		2.2.5 Fabric Sampling
	2.3 Practical Statistics
		2.3.1 Introduction
		2.3.2 Normal Distribution
		2.3.3 Sample Analysis
			2.3.3.1 Sampling Distribution
			2.3.3.2 Significance Testing
			2.3.3.3 Confidence Intervals
			2.3.3.4 Statistical Tools Used for Decision Making
	References
3 Fibre Length
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Importance of Fibre Length Measurement
		3.2.1 Quality Assessment
		3.2.2 Quality Prediction
		3.2.3 Fibre Breakage Study
		3.2.4 Machine Setting
		3.2.5 Combing Efficiency Assessment
	3.3 Expressions of Fibre Length
		3.3.1 Staple Length
		3.3.2 Mean Length
		3.3.3 Upper Quartile Length
		3.3.4 Effective Length
		3.3.5 Modal Length
		3.3.6 Span Length
	3.4 Methods of Length Measurement of Cotton
		3.4.1 Hand Stapling Method
		3.4.2 Mechanised Stapling Method
		3.4.3 Comb Sorter Method
			3.4.3.1 Mean Length
			3.4.3.2 Dispersion
			3.4.3.3 Staple Length
		3.4.4 Photoelectric Sensing Method
			3.4.4.1 Span Length
			3.4.4.2 Mean Length and Upper Half Mean Length
		3.4.5 Single Fibre Length Measurement
		3.4.6 Length Measurement By Weight
			3.4.6.1 Mean Length
			3.4.6.2 Upper Quartile Length
		3.4.7 Clamp Tuft Method
		3.4.8 Comparison Between Fibrogram and Comb Sorter Diagram
	3.5 Expressions of Fibre Length Variation
		3.5.1 Dispersion
		3.5.2 Uniformity Index
		3.5.3 Uniformity Ratio
		3.5.4 Short Fibre Content
		3.5.5 Floating Fibre Index
	3.6 Wool Fibre Length Measurement
		3.6.1 WIRA Fibre Diagram: Manual Method
		3.6.2 Mechanised Method
	References
4 Fibre Fineness and Maturity
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Fibre Fineness
		4.2.1 Importance of Fibre Fineness
			4.2.1.1 Stiffness, Handle and Drape of the Fabric
			4.2.1.2 Torsional Rigidity
			4.2.1.3 Light Reflection
			4.2.1.4 Absorption of Liquid
			4.2.1.5 Inter Fibre Cohesion
			4.2.1.6 Yarn Evenness
		4.2.2 Expressions of Fibre Fineness
		4.2.3 Methods of Measurement of Fibre Fineness
			4.2.3.1 Gravimetric Method for Cotton Fibres
			4.2.3.2 Gravimetric Method for Wool Fibres
			4.2.3.3 Microscopic Measurement
			4.2.3.4 Air-Flow Method
			4.2.3.5 Optical Fibre Diameter Analysis
			4.2.3.6 Fibre Diameter Analyser
			4.2.3.7 Vibration Method
	4.3 Cotton Fibre Maturity
		4.3.1 Importance of Maturity
		4.3.2 Parameters to Express the Maturity
			4.3.2.1 Degree of Thickening (T)
			4.3.2.2 Maturity Ratio (M)
			4.3.2.3 Maturity Count
		4.3.3 Methods of Measurement of Maturity
			4.3.3.1 Caustic Soda and Microscope Method
			4.3.3.2 Double Compression Method
			4.3.3.3 Causticaire Method
			4.3.3.4 High Volume Instrument (HVI) Method
			4.3.3.5 Advance Fibre Information System (AFIS) Method
			4.3.3.6 Image Processing Method
			4.3.3.7 Near-Infrared (NIR) Method
	References
5 Moisture in Textiles
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Terms Related to Moisture
		5.2.1 Absolute Humidity
		5.2.2 Relative Humidity
		5.2.3 Expressions of Moisture in Textile Materials
			5.2.3.1 Moisture Regain
			5.2.3.2 Moisture Content
		5.2.4 Moisture Hysteresis
		5.2.5 Correct Invoice Weight
	5.3 Measurement Techniques
		5.3.1 Measurement of Relative Humidity
		5.3.2 Measurement of Moisture Regain and Content
			5.3.2.1 Oven Dry Method
			5.3.2.2 Infrared Method
			5.3.2.3 Capacitance Or Resistance Method
	5.4 Effect of Presence of Moisture On Fibre Properties
		5.4.1 Material Dimension
		5.4.2 Mechanical Properties
		5.4.3 Electrical Properties
		5.4.4 Thermal Properties
	References
6 Advanced Characterizations of Cotton Fibre
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 High Volume Instrument (HVI)
		6.2.1 Micronaire and Maturity
		6.2.2 Length
		6.2.3 Strength
		6.2.4 Moisture
		6.2.5 Colour
		6.2.6 Trash
		6.2.7 Spinning Consistency Index (SCI)
		6.2.8 Count Strength Product
	6.3 Advance Fibre Information System (AFIS)
		6.3.1 Fibre Analysis
		6.3.2 Trash Analysis
	References
7 Yarn Linear Density
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Yarn Numbering Systems
		7.2.1 Direct Systems
		7.2.2 Indirect Systems
		7.2.3 Yarn Linear Density and Diameter Relationship for Cotton Yarn
	7.3 Folded Yarn Count
	7.4 Measurement of Yarn Linear Density
		7.4.1 Yarn in Continuous Form
			7.4.1.1 Using Wrap Reel and Electronic Balance
			7.4.1.2 Knowles Balance
		7.4.1.3 Quadrant Balance
		7.4.2 Yarn Sample From Fabric
	References
8 Hairiness of Textile Materials
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Causes of Hairiness
		8.2.1 Fibre Parameters
			8.2.1.1 Maturity
			8.2.1.2 Uniformity Ratio
			8.2.1.3 Fibre Fineness
			8.2.1.4 Fibre Length
		8.2.2 Yarn and Spinning Parameters
	8.3 Effects of Hairiness
		8.3.1 Yarn Strength
		8.3.2 Sizing Problems
		8.3.3 Weaving Knitting Problem
		8.3.4 Fabric Appearance and Quality
	8.4 Yarn Hairiness Measurement
		8.4.1 Shirley Yarn Hairiness Tester
		8.4.2 Zweigle Hairiness Tester
		8.4.3 Hairiness Testing By Light Scattering
	8.5 Fabric Hairiness Measurement
		8.5.1 Low Pressure Compression Testing
		8.5.2 Laser Hairiness Meter
		8.5.3 Modified Audio Pickup Technique
	References
9 Evenness of Fibrous Strands
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Types of Irregularities
		9.2.1 Irregularity in Linear Density
		9.2.2 Irregularity in Yarn Diameter
		9.2.3 Irregularity in Yarn Twist
		9.2.4 Irregularity in Yarn Strength
		9.2.5 Irregularity in Yarn Hairiness
	9.3 Terminologies Related to Irregularity
		9.3.1 Coefficient of Variation and Percentage Mean Deviation
		9.3.2 Limit Irregularity
		9.3.3 Index of Irregularity
	9.4 Addition and Reduction of Irregularity
	9.5 Causes of Irregularities
		9.5.1 Properties of Raw Material
		9.5.2 Inherent Shortcoming of the Yarn Production Process
		9.5.3 Mechanically Defective Machinery
		9.5.4 Working Conditions
	9.6 Effects of Irregularity
		9.6.1 Strength
		9.6.2 Dyeing Faults
		9.6.3 Fabric Appearance
	9.7 Classification of Variation
		9.7.1 Classification Based On the Manner of Occurrence
			9.7.1.1 Random Variations
			9.7.1.2 Periodic Variations
		9.7.2 Classification Based On the Length of Occurrence
	9.8 Measurement of Evenness
		9.8.1 Visual Examination
		9.8.2 Cutting and Weighing Technique
		9.8.3 Thickness Measurement Under Compression
			9.8.3.1 Groove and Shoe Principle
			9.8.3.2 The WIRA Roving Evenness Tester
			9.8.3.3 The Anderson Yarn Tester
			9.8.3.4 Roller Yarn Diameter Tester
		9.8.4 Capacitance Method
			9.8.4.1 Principle
			9.8.4.2 Modes of Presenting the Results
			9.8.4.3 Yarn Fault Classification
		9.8.5 Photoelectric Method
		9.8.6 Infrared Method
		9.8.7 Electronic Inspection Board
		9.8.8 Online Monitoring of Yarn Evenness
	References
10 Yarn Twist
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Effects of Twist
		10.2.1 Yarn Strength
		10.2.2 Fabric Handle
		10.2.3 Moisture Absorption
		10.2.4 Wearing Property
		10.2.5 Aesthetic Property
		10.2.6 Cover Factor and Transmission Characteristics
	10.3 Applications of Twist
	10.4 Expressions of Twist Level
	10.5 Methods of Measurement of Twist
		10.5.1 Direct Counting Method
		10.5.2 Continuous Twist Tester
		10.5.3 Untwist-Twist Method
		10.5.4 Multiple Untwist Twist Method
		10.5.5 Automatic Twist Tester
		10.5.6 Plied Yarn Twist Measurement
	References
11 Tensile Characteristics
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Tensile Terminologies
		11.2.1 Breaking Load Or Breaking Strength
		11.2.2 Stress and Specific Stress
		11.2.3 Strain and Elongation
		11.2.4 Tenacity
		11.2.5 Tensile Curves
		11.2.6 Hooke’s Region
		11.2.7 Initial Modulus Or Young’s Modulus and Tangent Modulus
		11.2.8 Yield Point
		11.2.9 Breaking Length
		11.2.10 Work of Rupture
		11.2.11 Work Factor
		11.2.12 Elastic Recovery
		11.2.13 Time Dependent Deformation
	11.3 Factors Affecting the Tensile Characteristics
		11.3.1 Molecular Structure of Fibre
		11.3.2 Intensity of Weak Spots
		11.3.3 Fibre Linear Density
		11.3.4 Environmental Condition
	11.4 Factors Affecting the Tensile Test Results
		11.4.1 Specimen Length
		11.4.2 Rate of Loading
		11.4.3 Capacity of the Machine
		11.4.4 Humidity and Temperature
		11.4.5 Previous History of the Specimen
		11.4.6 Clamping Conditions
	11.5 Principles of Tensile Testing
	11.6 Fibre Strength Measurement
		11.6.1 Stelometer
		11.6.2 Pressley Fibre Strength Tester
	11.7 Yarn Strength Measurement
		11.7.1 Spring Loading Principle
		11.7.2 Inclined Plane Principle
		11.7.3 Swinging Pendulum Principle
		11.7.4 Strain Gauge Principle
		11.7.5 Continuous Winding Principle
	11.8 Pendulum Lever Principle
	11.9 Lea Strength in Skein Form
	11.10 Fabric Strength Measurement
		11.10.1 Strip Tensile Test
		11.10.2 Grab Tensile Test
	References
12 Bursting and Tear Characteristics
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Bursting Strength
		12.2.1 Bursting Characteristic Requirement
		12.2.2 Testing Methods
			12.2.2.1 Diaphragm Bursting Strength Test
			12.2.2.2 Ball Bursting Strength Test
	12.3 Tear Strength
		12.3.1 Factors Affecting Tear Strength
		12.3.2 Methods of Measurement
			12.3.2.1 Single Rip Tear Test Or Tongue Tear Test
			12.3.2.2 Double Rip Tear Test
			12.3.2.3 Wing Rip Tear Test
			12.3.2.4 Elmendorf Tear Test
			12.3.2.5 Trapezoid Tear Test
	References
13 Pilling and Abrasion Characteristics
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Pilling Characteristics
		13.2.1 Methods of Measurement
			13.2.1.1 Objective Measurement
			13.2.1.2 Subjective Measurement
	13.3 Abrasion Characteristics
		13.3.1 Factors Affecting the Abrasion Characteristics
		13.3.2 Testing Parameters Affecting the Abrasion Test Results
		13.3.3 Methods of Measurement
			13.3.3.1 Martindale Abrasion Tester
			13.3.3.2 Accelerator Abrasion Tester
	References
14 Low Stress Mechanical Characteristics of Fabrics
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Bending Characteristics
		14.2.1 Cantilever Principle
		14.2.2 Hanging Loop Method
	14.3 Shear Characteristics
		14.3.1 Simple Shear
		14.3.2 Bias Extension
	14.4 Drape Characteristics
		14.4.1 Drape Meter
		14.4.2 Cusick Drape Test
	14.5 Interdependence of Bending, Shear and Drape
	14.6 Frictional Characteristics
		14.6.1 Friction Test Using UTM
		14.6.2 Friction Test Using Inclined Plane Principle
	14.7 Compression Characteristics
		14.7.1 Compression Test By Thickness Gauge
		14.7.2 Compression Test On a UTM
	14.8 Objective Assessment Systems
		14.8.1 Kawabata Evaluation System (KES)
			14.8.1.1 KES-FB1
			14.8.1.2 KES-FB2
			14.8.1.3 KES-FB3
			14.8.1.4 KES-FB4
			14.8.1.5 Primary Handle
		14.8.2 Fabric Assurance By Simple Testing (FAST)
			14.8.2.1 FAST-1
			14.8.2.2 FAST-2
			14.8.2.3 FAST-3
			14.8.2.4 FAST-4
			14.8.2.5 FAST Chart Or Fingerprint
		14.8.3 Fabric Extraction Principle
	References
15 Transmission Characteristics of Textiles
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Air Transmission
	15.3 Moisture Transmission
		15.3.1 Liquid Transmission
			15.3.1.1 Wetting
			15.3.1.2 Wicking
		15.3.2 Moisture Vapour Transmission
			15.3.2.1 Evaporative Dish Method
			15.3.2.2 Upright Cup Method
			15.3.2.3 Inverted Cup Method
			15.3.2.4 Desiccant Inverted Cup Method
			15.3.2.5 Moisture Vapour Transmission Cell Method
			15.3.2.6 Sweating Guarded Hot Plate Method
			15.3.2.7 PERMETEST Instrument
			15.3.2.8 Microclimate Simulator Cum Moisture Vapour Transmission Tester (MS-MVTT)
	15.4 Heat Transmission
		15.4.1 Tog Test
			15.4.1.1 Two-Plate Method
			15.4.1.2 Single-Plate Method
		15.4.2 Clo Test Using Guarded Hot Plate
		15.4.3 KES-F Thermo-Lab-II
		15.4.4 Thermal Manikin
	References
16 Apparel Testing
	16.1 Introduction
		16.1.1 Introduction to Apparel Testing
		16.1.2 Components of an Apparel
	16.2 Dedicated Tests for Apparel and Its Assemblies
		16.2.1 Seam Slippage Or Failure Test
		16.2.2 Zipper Strength Test
		16.2.3 Tension Strength of Sew-Through Buttons
		16.2.4 Dimensional Stability
		16.2.5 Seam Puckering
	References
17 Testing of Technical Textiles
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Testing of Geotextiles
		17.2.1 Sampling
		17.2.2 Testing Methods
			17.2.2.1 Physical Properties
			17.2.2.2 Mechanical Properties
			17.2.2.3 Hydraulic Properties of Geotextiles
			17.2.2.3.1 Porosity
	17.3 Testing of Filter Fabrics
		17.3.1 Properties of Filters
			17.3.1.1 Filtration Related Properties
			17.3.1.2 Physical Properties
			17.3.1.3 Mechanical Properties
		17.3.2 Air Filtration Test
			17.3.2.1 Vertical Air Filtration Test
			17.3.2.2 Horizontal Air Filtration Test
	17.4 Testing of Protective Textiles
		17.4.1 Testing of Ballistic Panels
			17.4.1.1 Dynamic Impact Test
			17.4.1.2 Projectile Or Weapon Test
		17.4.2 Stab Resistance Test
			17.4.2.1 Dynamic Stab Resistance Test
			17.4.2.2 Quasi Static Stab Resistance Test
		17.4.3 Testing of Cut Resistant Fabrics
			17.4.3.1 Flat Knife Cut Resistance Tester
			17.4.3.2 Circular Knife Cut Resistance Tester
		17.4.4 Testing of Heat Protective Clothing
			17.4.4.1 Flame Exposure Test
			17.4.4.2 Radiant Heat Exposure Test
			17.4.4.3 Combined Radiant and Flame Exposure Test
			17.4.4.4 Hot Surface Contact Exposure Test
			17.4.4.5 Steam Exposure Test
			17.4.4.6 Hot Water Splash Exposure Test
			17.4.4.7 Hot Water Immersion With Compression Exposure Test
		17.4.5 Acoustic Textiles
			17.4.5.1 Sound Absorption Test
			17.4.5.2 Sound Transmission Loss Test
	References
18 Testing of Fibrous Composites
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Destructive Tests
		18.2.1 Tensile Behaviour
		18.2.2 Compression Behaviour
		18.2.3 Flexural Behaviour
		18.2.4 Impact Behaviour
			18.2.4.1 Pendulum Type Impact Testing
			18.2.4.2 Drop Weight Impact Test
		18.2.5 Interfacial Bonding Strength Test
			18.2.5.1 Single-Fibre Pull Out Test
			18.2.5.2 Single Fibre Push Out Test
			18.2.5.3 Fibre Fragmentation Test
			18.2.5.4 Microbond Test
		18.2.6 Void Content Test
		18.2.7 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
	18.3 Non-Destructive Tests
		18.3.1 Ultrasonic Inspection
		18.3.2 Thermographic Inspection
			18.3.2.1 Transmission Technique
			18.3.2.2 Reflection Technique
		18.3.3 Radiographic Inspection
			18.3.3.1 Advantages of Radiographic Inspection
			18.3.3.2 Disadvantages of Radiographic Inspection
		18.3.4 Shearography Inspection
			18.3.4.1 Interferometry Technique
			18.3.4.2 Digital Image Correction Technique
	References
Index