Techniques for Corrosion Monitoring (Woodhead Publishing Series in Metals and Surface Engineering)

Front Matter
Copyright
Contributors
Introduction
	General
	Corrosion cost
	Corrosion monitoring and its importance in corrosion prevention and control
	Organization of the book
	References
Corrosion fundamentals and characterization techniques
	Introduction
	General corrosion
	Passivity and localized corrosion
		Galvanic corrosion
		Pitting corrosion
		Crevice corrosion
		Dealloying
		Intergranular corrosion
	Microbially influenced corrosion
	Flow-assisted corrosion and erosion corrosion
	Stress corrosion cracking
	Corrosion fatigue
	Hydrogen embrittlement
	Characterization techniques
		Surface characterization
		Corrosion products characterization
	References
Electrochemical polarization techniques for corrosion monitoring
	Introduction
	Electrochemical nature of corrosion
	Energy-potential-current relationship
		Energy
		Potential
		Current
	Electrochemical polarization techniques for determining corrosion rates
		Polarization resistance method
		Tafel extrapolation method
		Cyclic potentiodynamic polarization
		Cyclic galvano-staircase polarization
		Potentiostatic polarization
		Galvanic corrosion rate
	Conversion of Icorr into corrosion rate
	Measurement of corrosion rate by polarization methods in the laboratory
		Working electrode
		Counter electrode
		Reference electrode
		Electrolyte
		Potentiostat
	Monitoring of corrosion rate by polarization methods in the field
	General limitations of polarization methods of determining corrosion rate
		Solution resistance
		Scan rate
		Electrode-bridging
		Presence of oxidation-reduction species
		Variation of corrosion potential
		Diffusion-controlled condition
		General corrosion only
	Applications of polarization methods in the field
	Future trends
	Further information
	References
Electrochemical polarization technique based on the nonlinear region weak polarization curve fitting analysis
	Introduction
		Measurement in the linear polarization region near the corrosion potential
		Measurement in the Tafel region
		Measurement in the nonlinear medium polarization region
		Characteristics of the curve fitting method
	Numerical simulation of the polarization curves in the nonlinear region-Weak polarization analysis
		Computing software platform
		Mathematical expression of calculation principle of numerical simulation method based on polarization measurement data
		Curve fitting software that simultaneously solves for the corrosion current and Tafel slopes
		Advanced model that accounts for diffusion control
		Electrochemical polarization method for general corrosion monitoring
		Calculation examples
	Design of low-power consumption real-time sensor systems for general corrosion monitoring
	Application of corrosion sensors based on weak polarization analysis method
		Smart Marine Corrosion Sensor
			Measuring the corrosion potential
			Measuring the corrosion current
			Inner design of SMCS
			Characteristics of SMCS
			Application of SMCS
		Deep-sea corrosion rate sensor
			Technical principle
			Research status, latest progress, and development prospect
			Performance of the present deep-sea corrosion rate sensor
		Challenges of deep-sea corrosion sensors
			Communication
			Deeper depth
			Power supply
			Underlying software
	Acknowledgments
	References
Electrochemical noise for corrosion monitoring
	Introduction to electrochemical noise
		What is electrochemical noise?
		History of EN measurement
	Measurement of EN
		Electrochemical potential noise
		Electrochemical current noise
		Simultaneous measurement of potential and current noise
		Instrumental requirements
			Potential measurement
			Current measurement
			Filtering
			Error sources
				Aliasing
				Quantization
				Interference
				Validation
	Alternative EN measurement methods
		Methods using asymmetric electrodes
		Switching methods
		Combined noise and impedance measurement
		Testing EN instrumentation
	Interpretation of EN
		Introduction
		Direct examination of time records
		Statistical methods
			Mean current and potential
			Standard deviation of current and potential
			Noise resistance
			Skewness of current and potential
			Kurtosis of current and potential
			Coefficient of variation
			Localization index
			Pitting factor
			Shot-noise parameters
			Coulomb counting
		Spectral methods
		Wavelet methods
		Time-frequency methods
		Chaos methods
		Classifier and neural network methods
	Comparison of EN and polarization resistance for the estimation of corrosion rate
		Claimed advantages of noise resistance
		Use of EN for the identification of the type of corrosion
	Practical applications
	Harmonic distortion analysis
	Electrochemical frequency modulation
	References
Galvanic sensors and zero-voltage ammeter
	Introduction
	Galvanic current and corrosion current
		Galvanic current
		Corrosion current
		Galvanic current from two pieces of same metals
	Measurement of galvanic current and zero-voltage ammeter
		Zero-voltage ammeters formed with operational amplifiers
		Zero-voltage ammeters formed with a potentiostat
		Zero-voltage ammeters formed with a low-cost voltmeter and shunt resistor
		Effect of the voltage imposed by ZVA on galvanic current measurements
	Galvanic sensors
	Applications of galvanic sensors
		Galvanic sensors for monitoring corrosion in industrial processes
		Galvanic sensors for monitoring atmospheric corrosion
		Galvanic sensors for corrosion monitoring in other systems
	Advantages and limitations of galvanic sensors
	Summary
	References
Differential flow cell technique
	Introduction
	Principles of the differential flow cell (DFC) method
		The problem the method designed to solve
		The physical model
		The DFC method to obtain localized corrosion rate
			Typical electrolytic cell assembly
			Electrical instrument assembly
			Methods to obtain localized corrosion rates
			Validation of the technique
			How to use a DFC-based localized corrosion monitor (LCM) for field applications
	Data interpretation and use
		General considerations for effective carbon steel corrosion control
		How corrosion inhibitors work
		Performance issues in cooling water treatments
		Integrated solutions needed to improve cooling water treatment performance
		Factors to consider in interpreting LCM readings
			Time-dependence of corrosion rate measurements
			Effect of water temperature
			Attributing causes of corrosion rate variations and treatment optimization strategy
			Maximum localized corrosion rate vs. length of localized corrosion events
	Comparison with ZRA-based occluded cell measurement results
	Applications
	Future trends and additional information
	References
Multielectrode systems
	Introduction
	Earlier multielectrode systems for high-throughput corrosion studies
	Uncoupled multielectrode arrays
	Coupled multielectrode systems for corrosion detection
	Coupled multielectrode arrays for spatiotemporal corrosion and electrochemical studies
	Coupled multielectrode arrays for spatiotemporal corrosion measurements
	Ammeters used for the measurements of coupling currents
	Coupled multielectrode array sensors with simple output parameters for corrosion monitoring
		Principle of coupled multielectrode array sensors for corrosion monitoring
		Maximum localized corrosion rate
		Estimation of general corrosion rate using coupled multielectrode array sensors and localized corrosion rate factor
		Estimation of general corrosion depth using coupled multielectrode array sensors and localized corrosion depth factor
		Cumulative maximum localized corrosion rate
	Effects of internal currents on CMAS and minimization of the internal effect
		Internal current effects on nonuniform corrosion rate measurement using coupled multielectrode array sensors
		Evaluation of Internal current effects on nonuniform corrosion rate measurement
		CMAS that measures the internal current effect during the measurement of corrosion rate
			Estimation of the internal current based on overpotential measurements
			Method to determine the overpotential without using a reference electrode
		Minimization of internal current effects on localized corrosion rate measurement using coupled multielectrode arra ...
	Electrode spacing effect on corrosion rate measurement with CMAS
	Minimization of the effects by corrosion products formed in H2S-containing environment on localized corrosion rate  ...
	Minimization of the effect by crevice on corrosion rate measurement using coupled multielectrode array sensors
	Stochastic nature of localized corrosion and variability of localized corrosion rates of metals
	Validation of corrosion rate measurement using coupled multielectrode array sensors
		Comparison with literature coupon data
		Comparison with penetration probes with multilayer, multithickness elements or multiwires
		Comparison with parallel coupons and with the corroded depth of the electrodes on the CMAS probes
			Corroded depth of the electrodes on the CMAS probes
			Comparison with parallel coupons
	Applications of coupled multielectrode array sensor for real-time corrosion monitoring
	Limitations of multielectrode systems
	Summary
	References
Gravimetric techniques
	Introduction
	Thermogravimetric analysis technique
		Examples of microbalance applications
			Thermal decomposition of calcium oxalate hydrate
			Oxidation kinetics of nanostructured coatings
	QCM technique
		Principle of QCM
		QCM experiments and equipment
			QCM equipment
			QCM applications
		Dissipation technique
			Dissipation monitoring equipment
		Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance
			EQCM equipment
			Applications
	Gravimetric techniques summary
	References
Radioactive tracer methods
	Principle and history
	Assumptions
	Labeling methods
		Bulk or thermal neutron activation
		Thin or surface layer activation
	Potential isotopes
	Calibration and conversion to corrosion units
	Applications and limitations
		Example applications
			Real-time crude oil corrosivity measurement
			Real-time measurement of in-cylinder corrosion in operating internal combustion engine
		Discussion of limitations
	Sources of further information
	References
Electrical resistance techniques
	Introduction and background
	Sensing probe designs
	Examples of application and use
		Chemical process and oil and gas industries
		Concrete structures
		Atmospheric
		Corrosion in soils
	Sensing probe electronics and instrumentation
	Variations on the ER theme
		Inductance method
		Field signature method
	Advantages and limitations
	Summary and conclusions
	References
Nondestructive evaluation technologies for monitoring corrosion
	Introduction
	NDE methods for corrosion monitoring
		Ultrasonic monitoring technologies
		Eddy current
		Acoustic emission and equipment
		Guided waves and equipment
		Infrared thermography
			New inspection technology
	Future trends
	References
Acoustic emission
	Introduction
	Principle of method
		Equipment
			Typical sensor
			Typical electronics
			Typical software
		Typical tab data for real-time monitoring
			Aboveground storage tank inspection
		Corrosion monitoring of pipe wall thickness
		Advantages, limitations, cost, maintenance, ease of use, online and real-time vs offline, effect of environmental ...
		Continuous development and future trends
	References
Hydrogen flux measurements in petrochemical applications
	Introduction
	Scenarios leading to the detection of hydrogen flux
	A measurement of hydrogen activity based on flux measurement
	Comments pertaining to particular flux measurement applications
		Using flux measurements to assess hydrogen damage risk
		Hydrogen bakeouts
		Using flux to indicate corrosion by sour gas and related species
		Using flux to indicate corrosion by HF acid
		Naphthenic acid corrosion and sulfidic corrosion
	References
Corrosion monitoring in microbial environments
	Introduction
	Biofilm and MIC monitoring
	Corrosion monitoring applied to MIC
		Redox potential and open circuit potential measurement (OCP)
		Linear polarization resistance (LPR)
		Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
		Electrochemical noise (EN)
		Electrical resistance (ER)
		Other techniques
	Biofilm and bacteria monitoring
		Online biofilm and fouling monitoring
		Electrochemical biofilm sensors
	Integrated online monitoring systems
		Costs of monitoring equipment
	Case histories
		Inhibition of crevice corrosion on stainless steel
		Optimization of cooling water treatment in power plants
		Detection of biofilm in mineral water plant
		Testing of a disinfecting treatment based on peracetic acid in wastewater and seawater
		Monitoring of copper alloy condenser tube passivation in power plants
		Monitoring of corrosion-erosion in aluminum brass condenser tubes
		Monitoring of cooling water treatment in a steel factory
		Evaluation of a water treatment in a cooling tower
	Summary
	References
Corrosion monitoring in concrete
	Introduction
	Deterioration mechanisms for corrosion of steel in concrete
		General deterioration model
		Initiation phase
			Carbonation
			Chloride ingress
		Deterioration phase
			Corrosion mechanisms
			Rate-determining parameters
		Service life management
	Condition assessment of reinforced concrete structures
		Stage 1-Design phase
		Stage 2-Construction phase
		Stage 3-Operational service life of a structure
	Measurement principles
		General
		Half-cell potential measurements
		Electrolytic resistance measurements
		Corrosion current measurements
		Linear polarization resistance (LPR) measurements
	Case studies
		Case study 1-Corrosion monitoring to avoid chloride ingress
		Case study 2-Corrosion monitoring during the initiation phase
		Case study 3-Corrosion monitoring during the deterioration phase
	Conclusions
	References
Corrosion monitoring in soil
	Introduction
	Types of soil corrosion probes
	Electrical resistance probes
		Types of ER probes
		Typical applications
		Selection of ER probe installation locations
	Monitoring and data interpretation
	Effectiveness criteria
	New developments in soil corrosion probe monitoring technology
		Multifunction ER soil corrosion probes
		Ultrasound soil corrosion monitoring probes
		Coupled multielectrode probes
	References
Corrosion monitoring in refineries
	Introduction
	Types of refinery corrosion
	Corrosion monitoring technologies available
	Purpose of monitoring-Select monitoring technology and set up accordingly
	Operational recommendations
		Continuous vs noncontinuous monitoring
		Online vs off-line communication
		Understanding the data
		Proactive management of CM system for performance and data management
	Monitoring from tank farm to product
	Summary and conclusions
	References
Corrosion monitoring undercoatings and insulation
	Introduction
	Corrosion monitoring methods undercoatings
		Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
		Electrochemical noise (EN)
		Other techniques
	Corrosion monitoring methods for CUI
	Summary and conclusions
	References
Cathodic protection and stray current measurement and monitoring
	Cathodic protection measurement and monitoring
		Introduction of cathodic protection mechanism and methods
		Cathodic protection criteria and understanding
		Cathodic protection measurement and monitoring
	DC stray current interference detection and monitoring
		Introduction of DC stray current interference and types
		DC stray current interference evaluation criteria
		DC stray current interference detection and monitoring
	AC Stray current interference detection and monitoring
		Introduction of AC stray current interference and types
		AC interference evaluation criteria
		AC interference detection and monitoring
	Cathodic protection monitoring with corrosion probes
	References
Remote monitoring and computer applications
	Introduction
		Why remote monitoring?
		Chapter scope
		Remote monitoring basics
		Critical decisions in a remote monitoring system
	Data considerations
		Nature and criticality of the data
		Frequency and amount of data transmitted
	Communications networks
		Private networks
		Wide-area networks
		WAN choice and obsolescence
	Application-specific requirements
		Power requirements
		Environmental requirements
		RMU inputs
		Remote control; output requirements
	Website and supporting systems
		Website basics
		Data security and redundancy
		Data export, analysis, and grouping
		Alarm notifications
		Supporting systems
	References
	Further reading
Corrosion monitoring in cooling water systems using differential flow cell technique
	Introduction
	Corrosion inhibition program selection and optimization
	Program optimization at a chemical processing plant
	Program optimization using pilot cooling tower tests
	Refinery hydrocarbon leak detection and control
	Refinery leak detection and program optimization
	Admiralty brass corrosion control in cooling water system using brackish water as make-up
	References
Advanced corrosion control at chemical plants using a electrochemical noise method
	Introduction
	Investigation
		Principles of the three-electrode electrochemical noise measurement
		Verification of the three-electrode electrochemical noise measurement
	Monitoring and corrosion control
		Operation
		Damage
		Monitoring
		Measurement results
	Analysis
	Corrosion control
	Conclusion
	References
Corrosion monitoring under cathodic protection conditions using multielectrode array sensors
	Introduction
	Evaluation of the effectiveness of cathodic protections with CMAS probes
		Minimum adequate CP potential, excessive CP potential, and maximum allowable current
		Corrosion rate as an indicator for the effectiveness of CP when the CP is inadequate
		CP margin of effectiveness as the degree of adequate cathodic protection
		Corrosion rate and CP effectiveness margin as the most effective CP parameters from a CMAS probe
		Determination of the maximum allowable CP current
	Typical application for cathodically protected carbon steel in simulated seawater
		Measurements of stray current effect and the effectiveness of CP
		Measurements of the dynamic stray current effect
		Summary
	Measurements of the effectiveness of CP for carbon steel in concrete
		Localized corrosion of carbon steel in freshly mixed concrete
		Localized corrosion rate during cathodic protection
		Summary
	Measurements of the effectiveness of CP for carbon steel in soil
		Corrosion rate in soil
		Corrosion rate in soil under cathodic protection conditions
		Measurement of effectiveness of cathodic protection of pipeline in an oil field
		Summary
	Measurements of localized corrosion rates of cathodically protected carbon steel in drinking water
		Maximum localized corrosion rates and their usefulness for the evaluation of CP effectiveness
		General corrosion rates
		Probe potentials
		Posttest visual examination of the probes
		Summary
	References
Corrosion monitoring using the field signature method
	Introduction
	FSM measurement technology
		Temperature
		Determining corrosion and erosion data from FSM measurements
		FSM data management
	System configurations
	Applications
		Pipelines
			Value of FSM monitoring on pipelines
			Selecting FSM locations along a pipeline
				Assessment of other data, e.g., intelligent pig data
				Pipeline corrosion predictions
			FSM for pipeline monitoring
			FSM applications on pipelines
		Refineries
			Value of FSM monitoring in refineries
			Selecting locations for FSM monitoring in refineries
			FSM refinery case stories
		Upstream
	FSM upgrades
	Summary and perspectives ahead
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Z