Targeted Cancer Therapy in Biomedical Engineering

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1 Strategies for Cancer Targeting: Novel Drug Delivery Systems Opportunities and Future Challenges
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 NPS for Drug Delivery
	1.3 Challenges in Cancer Therapy
	1.4 Targeted Drug Therapy (TDT)
		1.4.1 Ideal Features of Targeted Drug Therapy
		1.4.2 Cancer Cell Targeting Mechanisms
		1.4.3 Approaches to Targeted Cancer Therapy
	1.5 Inhibition of Growth of Cancerous Lesions by Interruption of Protein Synthesis Signals
	1.6 Angiogenesis Inhibition
		1.6.1 Angiogenesis’s Role in Cancer
	1.7 Specific Drug Delivery for the Destruction of Malignant Cells
	1.8 Induction of Apoptosis
	1.9 Smart Strategies for Cancer Targeting
	1.10 Smart Endogenous Stimulus Strategies
		1.10.1 pH-Responsive NPS
		1.10.2 Enzyme-Responsive NPS
		1.10.3 Redox Reaction-Responsive NPS
	1.11 Smart Exogenous Stimulus Strategies
		1.11.1 Magnetic NPS
		1.11.2 Thermoresponsive NPS
		1.11.3 Photoresponsive NPS
		1.11.4 Ultrasound-Responsive NPS
		1.11.5 Electric Field Stimuli-Responsive NPS
	1.12 Dual Stimulus-Responsive NPS
	1.13 Smart Nanotechnology for Targeting of Cancer
		1.13.1 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles (LBNPS)
		1.13.2 Solid Lipid NPS (SLNs)
		1.13.3 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)
		1.13.4 Metal NPS
		1.13.5 Ceramic NPS
		1.13.6 Carbon-Based Nanosystems
		1.13.7 Semiconducting Nanosystems (SCN)
		1.13.8 Polymeric NPS
	1.14 Conclusion and Future Directions
	References
2 Implementation of Biomedical Engineering Tools in Targeted Cancer Therapy: Challenges and Opportunities
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Start of Malignant Growth
		2.1.2 Types of Malignant Growth/Cancer
		2.1.3 Spreading Out of Cancerous Cells and Its Diagnosis
		2.1.4 Various Kinds of Cancer Treatments
		2.1.5 Limitation/Difficulties in Cancer Therapy
		2.1.6 Organization of the Chapter
	2.2 Different Types of Targeting Techniques
		2.2.1 Ligand-Based Targeting
		2.2.2 Side Effects of Targeted Therapy
	2.3 Drug Delivery Strategies
		2.3.1 Drug Delivery Using AU NPs
		2.3.2 Nanoparticles in the cancer Diagnosis and Therapy
	2.4 Challenges in Nanomaterial-Based Cancer Therapy:
		2.4.1 Challenges Faced During Anticancer Medication Delivery
	2.5 Conclusion
	References
3 Exploration of Tissue-Engineered Systems for Cancer Research
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Difference in 2D and 3D Cell Culture in Physiological and Structural Aspects
		3.2.1 2D Cultures
		3.2.2 3D Cell Culture
	3.3 Current State of Tissue Engineering
		3.3.1 Smart Biomaterials
		3.3.2 Whole Organ Engineering
		3.3.3 Spheriods and Organoids
	3.4 Microfluidics and Body-on-a-Chip/Organ-on-a-Chip
		3.4.1 Microfluidics in Cancer Research
		3.4.2 Application of Microfluidics System in the Field of Cancer Biology is Explained in the Upcoming Section
		3.4.3 Application of Microfluidics for Organ-on-a-Chip System
		3.4.4 Application of Microfluidics for Studying the Process of Metastasis
		3.4.5 Application of Microfluidics to Study Cancer Phenotypes
		3.4.6 Application of Microfluidics for Replication of TME on Chip
		3.4.7 Application of Microfluidics to Study Shear Stress
		3.4.8 Application of Microfluidics in Isolation of CTCs
		3.4.9 Application of Microfluidics for Drug Screening Using Droplet Microfluidics
	3.5 Integration of Nanotechnology
	3.6 Tissue-Engineered Models Used in Cancer Reserch
		3.6.1 Osteosarcoma
		3.6.2 Breast Cancer
		3.6.3 Lung Cancer
		3.6.4 Ovarian Cancer
		3.6.5 Liver Cancer
		3.6.6 Blood Cancer
	3.7 Conclusion and Future Directions
	References
4 Biomaterial-Based Delivery Systems for Chemotherapeutics
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 The Generations of Biomaterials
		4.1.2 Role of Biomaterials in Cancer Therapy
	4.2 Types of Biomaterials
		4.2.1 Natural Biomaterials
		4.2.2 Synthetic Biomaterials
		4.2.3 Others
	4.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
5 Immunotherapy: Targeting Cancer Cells
	5.1 Introduction to Immunotherapy
	5.2 Approaches of Immunotherapy
		5.2.1 Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors
		5.2.2 Adoptive Cell Therapy (ACT)
		5.2.3 NK Cell Therapy
		5.2.4 Immunotherapy Using Oncolytic Viruses
		5.2.5 Immunotherapy Using Cancer Vaccines
		5.2.6 Cytokine Therapies
	5.3 Future Directions
	5.4 Conclusion
	References
6 Bioinformatics Tools to Discover and Validate Cancer Biomarkers
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Conclusion
	References
7 Application of Biomaterials in Cancer Research
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Classification of Biomaterials
		7.2.1 First-Generation Biomaterial
		7.2.2 Second-Generation Biomaterial
		7.2.3 Third-Generation Biomaterial
	7.3 Biomaterial for Cancer Immunotherapy
		7.3.1 Implantable Biomaterials
		7.3.2 Injectable Biomaterials
		7.3.3 Transdermal Biomaterials
		7.3.4 Novel Class of Biomaterials is Utilized for Cancer Immunotherapy
	7.4 Engineered Biomaterials for Cancer Immunotherapy
	7.5 Biomaterials for Vaccine-Based Cancer
		7.5.1 Integrating Cancer Vaccines and Biomaterials
		7.5.2 Biomaterials for Tumor Targeting and Alteration
	7.6 Biomaterial Implants to Monitor Cancer Recurrence
	7.7 Biomaterial Strategies to Modulate Cancer
		7.7.1 Cancer Molecular Markers
		7.7.2 Biomaterials for Cancer Therapy
	7.8 Biomaterials Approaches Tumor Modeling
	7.9 Biomaterials Used in Liver Cancer Treatment
	7.10 Biomaterial-Assisted Photoimmunotherapy for Cancer
		7.10.1 Biomaterial-Assisted Photothermal Immunotherapy
		7.10.2 Biomaterial-Assisted Photodynamic Immunotherapy
		7.10.3 Silk as Innovative Biomaterial for Cancer Therapy
		7.10.4 An Anticancer Medication Delivery System Using Silkworm Silk
		7.10.5 Marine-Derived Biomaterials for Cancer Treatment
		7.10.6 Bioactive Agents Made of Marine Biopolymers
	7.11 Conclusion
	References
8 Engineered Tissue in Cancer Research: Techniques, Challenges, and Current Status
	8.1 Origin of Tissue Engineering
	8.2 Current Status of Tissue Engineering
	8.3 Challenges in Tumor Engineering
		8.3.1 Hypoxic Tumor Environment
		8.3.2 Angiogenesis
		8.3.3 Acidification of TME
		8.3.4 Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition
		8.3.5 Tumor Endothelial Heterogenicity
		8.3.6 Experimental Design
		8.3.7 Microenvironmental Conditions
	8.4 Paradigm Shift from 2 to 3D Techniques in Cancer Research
	8.5 Applications of Tissue Engineering with Particular Emphasis on Cancer
		8.5.1 Three-Dimensional (3D) Cell Cultures Models
		8.5.2 In Vitro Synthesis of Tissues and Organs
		8.5.3 In Vivo Engineering of Tissue and Organ
		8.5.4 Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering
		8.5.5 Drug Testing by Using Microtissues
		8.5.6 Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery Applications in Cancer Treatment
		8.5.7 Novel Applications
	References
9 CADD for Cancer Therapy: Current and Future Perspective
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Development of Targeted Cancer Therapy
	9.3 Computer-Aided Drug Design
	9.4 Computer-Aided Drug Design in Targeted Cancer Therapy
	9.5 Cancer Drug Targets
		9.5.1 Tumor Alterations Relevant for Genomics-Driven Therapy (TARGET)
		9.5.2 Therapeutically Applicable Research to Generate Effective Treatments (TARGET)
		9.5.3 Checkpoint Therapeutic Target Database (CKTTD)
		9.5.4 Non-coding RNAs and Drug Targets in Cancer (NoncoRNA)
		9.5.5 Therapeutic Target Database (TTD)
		9.5.6 Protein Data Bank (PDB)
		9.5.7 The Cancer Molecular-Targeted Therapy Database (CMTTdb)
		9.5.8 Cancer Drug Resistance Database (CancerDR)
		9.5.9 CanImmunother
	9.6 Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)
	9.7 Tyrosine Kinases Overexpression in Cancer
	9.8 Application of Computer-Aided Drug Design in Targeted Cancer Research
	9.9 Anticancer Molecule Databases
		9.9.1 CancerDrugs_DB
		9.9.2 canSAR
		9.9.3 CancerPPD
		9.9.4 PharmacoDB
		9.9.5 ReDO_DB
		9.9.6 TIPdb
		9.9.7 pdCSM-Cancer
		9.9.8 ACNPD
		9.9.9 NPACT
		9.9.10 DrugCentral
		9.9.11 DrugBank Online
		9.9.12 COlleCtion of Open Natural ProdUcTs (COCONUT)
		9.9.13 African Natural Products Database (ANPDB)
		9.9.14 Natural Products Atlas
		9.9.15 Phenol-Explorer
		9.9.16 ZINC
		9.9.17 PubChem
		9.9.18 Anticancer Prediction Tool
		9.9.19 AntiCP
		9.9.20 Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Cell-Penetrating Peptides (MLACP)
		9.9.21 ACPred-FL
		9.9.22 XDeep-AcPEP
		9.9.23 Chemoinformatics Tools in Targeted Cancer Therapy
		9.9.24 DataWarrior
		9.9.25 SwissADME
		9.9.26 pkCSM
		9.9.27 ADMETlab 2.0
		9.9.28 Molinspiration
		9.9.29 Molecular Docking in Targeted Therapy Studies
	9.10 Conclusion
	References
10 Leveraging Advancement in Robotics in the Treatment of Cancer
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Epidemiology of Cancer
	10.3 Timeline of Cancer Treatment
		10.3.1 Surgical Treatments
		10.3.2 Radiotherapy
		10.3.3 Chemotherapy
		10.3.4 Targeted Therapy
		10.3.5 Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors
	10.4 Robotic Surgery
		10.4.1 History and Background of Robotics’ Surgery
		10.4.2 Current Robotic Surgical Scenario
		10.4.3 Autonomy/AI in Robotic Surgery
	10.5 Robotics in Surgery of Cancer and Tumors
		10.5.1 Neurosurgery
		10.5.2 Cardiac Surgery
		10.5.3 Pulmonary Surgery
		10.5.4 Mediastinum
		10.5.5 Mastectomy
		10.5.6 GIT
		10.5.7 Urology
		10.5.8 Gynecology
		10.5.9 Pediatric Surgery
		10.5.10 Dermatology
	10.6 Pros and Cons of Robotics in Surgery
	10.7 Microrobots Approach in Cancer Therapy
	10.8 Robotics in Indian Scenario
	10.9 Conclusion
	References
11 Innovative Biomedical Equipment for Diagnosis of Cancer
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Novel Approaches for Cancer Diagnosis
		11.2.1 Photonic Crystal Fibre
		11.2.2 Terahertz Spectroscopy and Imaging
		11.2.3 Digital Infrared Thermal Imaging
		11.2.4 Ultrawideband (UWB) Radar-Based System
		11.2.5 Electronic Nose
		11.2.6 Aptamer
		11.2.7 Computer-Aided Detection (CADe) and Diagnosis (CADx) System
		11.2.8 CRISPR-Cas13 System
		11.2.9 Organ-on-a-Chip for Cancer
		11.2.10 Cancer-on-a-Chip
		11.2.11 Circulating Tumour Cells Technology
		11.2.12 Tumour-Derived Extracellular Vesicles
		11.2.13 Bubble with Ultrasound
		11.2.14 Navigation Bronchoscopy
		11.2.15 Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy
		11.2.16 Nanotechnology-Based Biomedical Equipment
		11.2.17 Computed Tomographic Colonography
		11.2.18 Laser Raman Spectroscopy
		11.2.19 Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound
		11.2.20 Internet of Things
	11.3 Types of Cancer and Biomedical Equipment Utilized
	11.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
12 Detection of Cancer Biomarker by Advanced Biosensor
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Biosensors: An Evolution
	12.2 Biosensor Sniffs for Cancer, Using Artificial Intelligence
		12.2.1 Machine Learning
		12.2.2 CMOS
		12.2.3 Lab on a Chip (LOC)
		12.2.4 Chip-Based Optical Sensor
		12.2.5 FET
		12.2.6 Optical Fiber Biosensors
		12.2.7 Aptasensors
	12.3 Protein Biomarkers for Cancer Analysis Using PEC
		12.3.1 A Smartphone-Based Colorimetry Biosensor
		12.3.2 Microfluidic Impedance Biosensors
		12.3.3 Electrochemiluminescence
	12.4 Selected Cancer Biomarkers
		12.4.1 CD44
		12.4.2 CA 125
	12.5 Future Directions
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13 Advancement of Nanocarrier-Based Engineering for Specific Drug Delivery for Cancer Therapy
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Cancer Nanotechnology: A New Paradigm in Cancer Treatment
	13.3 Nanotechnology Approaches for Cancer Treatment
		13.3.1 Liposomal Nano-Carriers
		13.3.2 Micelles
		13.3.3 Quantum Dots (QDs)
		13.3.4 Carbon Nanotubes (CNt)
		13.3.5 Dendrimers
		13.3.6 Niosomes
		13.3.7 Nanoparticles
		13.3.8 Nanocrystals
		13.3.9 Nanoemulsions
		13.3.10 Nanocapsule
		13.3.11 Nanosphere
	13.4 Cancer Diagnostics and Treatment Using Nanotechnology
	13.5 Aspects of Future Scientific Challenges
	13.6 Conclusion
	References
14 Nano-Drug Delivery Systems for Tumour-Targeting: Overcoming the Limitations of Chemotherapy
	14.1 Introduction to Nanocarriers
		14.1.1 Organic Nanocarriers
		14.1.2 Inorganic Nanocarriers
		14.1.3 Organic/Inorganic Hybrid Nanocarriers
	14.2 Targeting Mechanisms
		14.2.1 Passive Mechanism
		14.2.2 Active Mechanism
	14.3 Specific Tumours and Relative Nanocarriers
		14.3.1 Breast Tumour
		14.3.2 Lung Tumour
		14.3.3 Pancreatic Tumour
	14.4 Conclusion
	References
15 Microfluidics and Cancer Treatment: Emerging Concept of Biomedical Engineering
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Microfluidics
		15.2.1 Microfabrication
	15.3 Mimicking the Tumor Microenvironment
	15.4 Diagnosis
		15.4.1 Microfluidic Circulating Tumor Cells (CTC) Detection
		15.4.2 Microfluidic Tumor Exosomes Isolation
		15.4.3 Microfluidic ctDNA Detection
		15.4.4 Microfluidic Measurement of Proteins in Cancer
	15.5 Treatment
		15.5.1 Drug Delivery and Cancer Microfluidics
		15.5.2 Screening of Drugs Using Microfluidic Cancer Models
		15.5.3 Radiation Therapy of Cancer Using Microfluidics
		15.5.4 Gene Delivery for Cancer Using Microfluidics
	15.6 Conclusion
	References
16 Recent Developments in Two-Dimensional (2D) Inorganic Nanomaterials-Based Photothermal Therapy for Cancer Theranostics
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 2D Inorganic Nanosheets for Cancer Theranostics
	16.3 Synthetic Routes of 2D-NSTs
		16.3.1 Top-Down Technique for 2D-NSTs
		16.3.2 Bottom-Up Approach for 2D-NSTs
	16.4 Surface Modification/Functionalization of 2D-NSTs
		16.4.1 Metal Doped 2D-NSTs
		16.4.2 Surface-Modified/Decorated 2D-NSTs
	16.5 2D-NSTs for Synergistic Phototherapies
		16.5.1 MXene 2D-NSTs
		16.5.2 Transition Metal Dichalcogenide (TMDC) 2D-NSTs
		16.5.3 Graphene 2D-NSTs
		16.5.4 Black Phosphorus (BP) 2D-NSTs
	16.6 Toxicity Performances of 2D-NSTs
	16.7 Outlooks and Conclusion
	References
17 Cyclodextrins and Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges for Anti-Cancer Drug and Nutraceutical Delivery
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Obstacles in Tumor Treatment
		17.2.1 Blood
		17.2.2 Tumor Microenvironment
		17.2.3 Cellular Barriers
	17.3 Synthesis and Classification of CD-Based NSs
		17.3.1 Synthesis
		17.3.2 Classification
	17.4 Cyclodextrins and Cyclodextrin-Based Polymers/Anti-Cancer Drugs’ Inclusion Complexes, Their Formation, and Characterization
		17.4.1 Microscopic Analysis
		17.4.2 Spectroscopic Analysis
		17.4.3 Thermal Analysis
		17.4.4 Chromatographic Analysis
		17.4.5 X-ray Techniques
		17.4.6 Mechanical Analysis
		17.4.7 Swelling Properties
		17.4.8 Molecular Modeling Studies
	17.5 Cyclodextrins and Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges as Agents for Anti-Cancer Treatment
		17.5.1 Classical Drug Complexes
		17.5.2 Nutraceutical Complexes
	17.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
18 Theranostic Approaches for Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer: An Update
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Anticancer Drug Delivery: Challenges
		18.2.1 Multi Drug Resistance (MDR)
		18.2.2 Biopharmaceutical Properties
		18.2.3 Toxicity
	18.3 Scope of Theranostics Nanomedicine in Cancer
		18.3.1 Polymeric Nanomedicine
		18.3.2 Lipid-Based Nanomedicine
		18.3.3 Inorganic Nanomedicine
		18.3.4 Carbon-Based Nanomedicine
	18.4 Clinical Translational Perspectives of Theranostic Nanomedicine
	18.5 Conclusion and Future Directions
	References
19 MicroRNA Biomarkers for Oral Cancer: A Meta-Analytic Review
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Collection of Supporting Data and Meta-Analysis
		19.2.1 Eligibility Criteria for Data Extraction
		19.2.2 Statistical Analysis of Data
	19.3 Bioinformatics Analysis
		19.3.1 Transcription Factors, and Target Genes of DE-miRNAs
		19.3.2 Functional and Pathway Enrichment Analysis
	19.4 Outcome of Meta-Analysis and Bioinformatics Analysis
		19.4.1 Overview of the Included Studies
		19.4.2 Differentially Expressed MiRNAs
		19.4.3 Targets Genes and Transcription Factors of DE-miRNAs
		19.4.4 Functional and Pathway Enrichment Analysis
	19.5 Discussion
	19.6 Conclusions
	References
20 Application of Magnetic Nanoparticles in Cancer: Drug Delivery and Therapy
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Overall Synthesis and Characterization of MNPs
	20.3 Toxicity, Distribution, and Pharmacokinetics of MNPs
	20.4 Evolvement of Tumors and Their Distribution
	20.5 Drug Delivery
		20.5.1 Passive Targeting
		20.5.2 Active Targeting
	20.6 Chemotherapy Agents
		20.6.1 Doxorubicin
		20.6.2 Cisplatin
		20.6.3 Paclitaxel
		20.6.4 Docetaxel
	20.7 Other Drugs for Targeted Delivery
	20.8 Diagnosis of Cancer
		20.8.1 Imaging Methods
		20.8.2 Imaging Positions
	20.9 Treatment of Cancer
		20.9.1 Magnetic Hyperthermia
		20.9.2 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
		20.9.3 Photothermal Therapy PTT
	20.10 Conclusion
	References
21 Vehicles for Delivery of Therapeutic Agent for Cancer Therapy
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Limitations in Cancer Therapy
		21.2.1 Cytotoxicity
		21.2.2 Harmful Effects of Cancer Therapy
		21.2.3 Polypharmacology
	21.3 Advancement of Nanomaterials-Based Formulations in Cancer Therapy
		21.3.1 Nanoparticles
		21.3.2 Liposomes
		21.3.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN)
		21.3.4 Dendrimers
		21.3.5 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
		21.3.6 Quantum Dots (QDs)
		21.3.7 Micelles
		21.3.8 Hydrogel
		21.3.9 Silica Nanoparticle
		21.3.10 Magnetic Nanoparticles
		21.3.11 Gold Nanoparticles
	21.4 Strategies Involved in Nanomaterials Targeting Cancer Therapy
		21.4.1 Nanomaterials Involved in Cancer Cells Targeting
		21.4.2 Nanomaterials Targeting the Tumor Microenvironment
		21.4.3 Nanomaterial’s Targeting for Immunotherapy
	21.5 Conclusion
	References
22 Photothermal Therapy for Cancer Treatment
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Molecular Mechanisms of Photothermal Therapy
	22.3 Factors Influencing Anti-Tumor Activity of Photothermal Therapy
		22.3.1 Temperature
		22.3.2 Photothermal Agents
		22.3.3 Wavelength of Laser Light
		22.3.4 Fluence Rate
		22.3.5 Irradiation Time
	22.4 State-Of-The-Art Targeted Photothermal Cancer Therapy
		22.4.1 Nanomaterial-Mediated Photothermal Cancer Therapies
		22.4.2 Conjugation for Targeting and Deep Penetration into Tumor Tissue
	22.5 Combination of PTT with Other Anti-Cancer Therapies
		22.5.1 Combining with Chemotherapy
		22.5.2 Combining with Radiotherapy
		22.5.3 Combining with Surgery
		22.5.4 Inhibiting Heat Emergency Proteins
		22.5.5 Combining with Immunotherapy
	22.6 Summary and Conclusion
	References
23 Tool and Techniques on Computer-Aided Drug Design for Targeted Cancer Therapy
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 CADD Methods
	23.3 Targeted Cancer Therapy
		23.3.1 Targeting Oncogenes
		23.3.2 Targeting Cancer-Related mRNA
		23.3.3 Targeting Oncoproteins
		23.3.4 Targeting Epigenetic Receptors
	23.4 Tackling Multidrug Resistance in Cancer Using CADD
	23.5 Pharmacokinetics of Small Molecule Inhibitors
	23.6 Drug Repositioning
	23.7 Immunoinformatics
	23.8 Conclusion
	References
24 Importance of Gut Microbiome-Based Therapeutics in Cancer Treatment
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Why to Target Gut Microbiota in Cancer Treatment?
	24.3 Bacteria that Improve Anticancer Drug Efficacy
	24.4 Pathogenic Microbes Contributing in Cancer Development
	24.5 Prebiotics and Probiotics in the Management of Cancer
		24.5.1 Prebiotics and Probiotics Treatment in Colon Cancer
		24.5.2 Prebiotics and Probiotics Treatment in Breast Cancer
		24.5.3 Prebiotics and Probiotics Treatment in Hepatic Cancer
		24.5.4 Role of Bacterial Strains in Several Cancer Models
		24.5.5 Probiotics as Antimutagens
	24.6 Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs) in Cancer Treatment
		24.6.1 SCFAs and Intestinal Cancer
		24.6.2 SCFAs and Hepatic Cancer
		24.6.3 SCFAs and Colorectal Cancer
		24.6.4 SCFAs and Breast Cancer
	24.7 Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT) in Cancer
		24.7.1 FMT and Gastrointestinal Cancer
		24.7.2 FMT and Hepatic Cancer
		24.7.3 FMT and Pancreatic Cancer
		24.7.4 FMT and Breast Carcinoma
		24.7.5 FMT and Melanoma
	24.8 Conclusion
	References
25 Computational Tools for Drug Discovery of Anticancer Therapy
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Binding Site Prediction for the Targets
	25.3 Keystones for CAD Diagnosis
		25.3.1 Pre-processing of Image
		25.3.2 Segmentation of Image
		25.3.3 Similarity-Based Approach
		25.3.4 Discontinuity-Based Approach
		25.3.5 Extraction and Selection of Features
		25.3.6 Classification
		25.3.7 Evaluation of Performance
		25.3.8 Rule of ABCD
	25.4 Recent and Indicative Studies in Cancer Diagnosis
	25.5 Future Advances and Challenges
	25.6 Conclusions
	References
26 Stem Cell Therapy in Cancer
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Sources of Stem Cells
		26.2.1 Embryonic Stem Cells and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
		26.2.2 Mesenchymal Stem Cells
		26.2.3 Hematopoietic Stem Cells
		26.2.4 Neural Stem Cells
		26.2.5 Endothelial Progenitor Stem Cells
		26.2.6 Cancer Stem Cells
	26.3 Properties of Stem Cells
	26.4 Types of Stem Cells Involved in Treatment of Cancer
		26.4.1 Adult Stem Cells
		26.4.2 Pluripotent Stem Cells
	26.5 Mechanism of Action of Stem Cells in Cancer Therapy
		26.5.1 Signaling Process in Cancer Stem Cells
		26.5.2 Secretion of Paracrine Factors Leading to Differentiation
		26.5.3 Bone Marrow Homing Mechanism
		26.5.4 Tropic Effects Induced by Tumor Cells
	26.6 Choice of Stem Cells Bone Marrow/Peripheral
	26.7 Role of Purging in Isolation of Stem Cells
	26.8 Lifespan of Adult Stem Cells
	26.9 Applications of Stem Cell Therapy in Relation to Cancer
		26.9.1 Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
		26.9.2 Stem Cells as a Therapeutic Carrier
		26.9.3 Mesenchymal Stem Cells After Treatment
		26.9.4 Secreted Agents
	26.10 Side Effects/Potential Risks of Stem Cell Therapy
		26.10.1 Adverse Effects as a Result of Allogeneic Transplant of HSCs
		26.10.2 Toxicity and Resistance of Drug
		26.10.3 Sudden Immune Response and Autoimmunity
		26.10.4 Tumorigenesis
		26.10.5 Viral Based Infections
	26.11 Other Applications of Stem Cells in Cancer Therapy
		26.11.1 Anticancer Drug Screening
		26.11.2 Development of Regenerative Medicine
	26.12 Factors Effecting Stem Cell Therapy
		26.12.1 Type of Stem Cell
		26.12.2 Route of Transplantation of Stem Cells
		26.12.3 Number of Cells and Timing of Transplantation
	26.13 Clinical Uses of Stem Cells in Treatment of Cancer
	26.14 Conclusion
	References
Index